Download Verbs Longman Student Grammar of Spoken and Written

Verbs
Longman Student Grammar of Spoken and
Written English
Biber; Conrad; Leech (2009, p.102-147)
Verbs provide the focal point of the clause. The main
verb in a clause determines the other clause
elements that can occur and specifies a meaning
relation among those elements. However, there are
many different kinds of verbs, including lexical v.
auxiliary verbs, different semantic classes, and
single-word v. multi-word verbs.
Grammar Bite A:
Verb functions and classes
• Verbs perform two major functions in clauses: main verbs
v. auxiliary verbs
– Main verbs are the central element in a clause
– Auxiliary verbs qualify the meaning of the main verb
• Verb forms can be grouped into three major classes
according to their ability to function as main verbs or
auxiliary verbs
– Lexical verbs (e.g. run, eat, think) function only as main verbs
– Primary verbs (be, have, do) can function as both auxiliary and
main verbs
– Modal verbs (e.g. can, could) function only as auxiliary verbs
• Lexical verbs are much more common than primary verbs
or modal verbs
• Lexical verbs are most common in conversation and fiction
Grammar Bite B: Single-word lexical verbs
• Lexical verbs fall into seven major semantic
categories: activity verbs (work), communication
verbs (write), mental verbs (wonder), causative verbs
(require), verbs of occurrence (die) , verbs of existence
or relationship (stay), and verbs of aspect (stop).
• Many lexical verbs have more than one meaning.
• Twelve verbs are especially common in English.
Their main uses fall into three types:
– Activity verbs: get, go, make, come, take, give
– Mental verbs: know, think, see, want, mean
– Communication verb: say
• In conversation, these twelve verbs are extremely
common. Written registers like academic prose tend
to use a wider range of different verbs.
Grammar Bite C:
Lexical verbs: structures and patterns
• Two areas are important in the structure of lexical verbs:
– Their inflectional morphology, which marks person, tense, aspect and
voice.
– Their derivational morphology, which shows how verbs have been
created.
• In their inflectional morphology, most verbs occur with regular
suffixes
– Many of the most common verbs have irregular morphology.
– Some verbs allow both regular and irregular morphology.
• New verbs can be formed with derivational morphology
– The prefix re- is frequently used for forming new words.
– The suffix –ize is also frequently used for forming new words.
– 4 derivational suffixes are common/ used with similar meanings. (ize)
• The main verb determines the other elements that are
necessary for the clause – i.e. the valency pattern
– There are 5 major valency patterns: intransitive, monotransitive...
– Many verbs can occur with more than one valency pattern, and they
often have different meanings with each pattern... different frequencies
Grammar Bite D: Multi-word lexical verbs
• There are three major types of multi-word verb: phrasal verbs, prepositional
verbs and phrasal-prepositional verbs.
– Multi-word combinations can also be free combinations.
• Phrasal verbs consist of a verb + adverbial particle; they can be intransitive
or transitive
– Phrasal verbs are especially frequent in conversation and fiction. The most
common verbs express physical activities (e.g. come on)
– A few phrasal verbs are especially common in academic prose (e.g. carry out)
• Prepositional verbs consist of a verb + preposition. They can have one or
two objects.
– Prepositional verbs are common in all registers.
– Prepositional verbs with activity and communication meanings are especially
common in conversation (e.g. look at)
– Passive voice prepositional verbs are especially common in academic prose.
They have causative or existence meanings.
• Phrasal-prepositional verbs consist of a verb + particle + preposition
– Like phrasal verbs, phrasal-prepositional verbs are especially frequent in
conversation and fiction. The most common verbs express physical activity (e.g.
get on with)
• There are also other kinds of multi-word verb constructions that occur with
idiomatic meanings (e.g. bear in mind, make do, and take time)
Grammar Bite E: Primary verbs
• The three primary verbs – be, have, and do – can serve as
both main verbs and auxiliary verbs. They differ, however, in
their specific functions.
– As copula (a main verb), be is the most common copular verb in
English
– As an auxiliary verb, be marks progressive aspect and passive voice
– As a main verb, have is one of the most common lexical verbs in
English
– It has a particularly wide range of meanings
– As an auxiliary, have marks perfect aspect
– As a main verb, do is a general transitive verb of action (do work)
– It often combines with a noun phrase to form idiomatic expressions
(e.g. do the dishes)
– As a main verb, do can also function as a transitive pro-verb (do it) or
an intransitive pro-verb (e.g. I must have done)
– As an auxiliary verb, do is used in the do-support construction for
forming negation and questions (e.g. Didn’t you know?)
– Auxiliary do is also used for emphatic meaning (e.g. Oh do shut up!)
Grammar Bite F: Copular verbs
• Copular verbs are used to express a relationship between
the subject of the clause and an attribute. (You’re very stupid)
• Copular verbs usually take an obligatory subject predicative.
• Some copular verbs can also occur with an obligatory
adverbial. (I was in the kitchen)
• Many different verbs can function as copulas. These verbs
can be grouped into two major categories: current copular
verbs and result copular verbs.
– Current copular verbs express states of existence or sensory
perceptions (e.g. be, fell)
– Result copular verbs express the result of a process of change (e.g.
become, turn out)
• The copular verbs differ in their meanings and in the
complements that they can take. (BE- characterizing “Tomorrow could be sunny”
– BE – identifying “That’s our house”.)
• There are highly systematic patterns of use associated with
copular verbs + complements (come alive, come clear – recurring adjectives)
Time for a gag and some analysis!
• Teacher – Alec, what is a synonym ?
• It’s a word I can’t spell that means the same as one I can.
• Teacher – Today we are going to discuss the heart,
kidneys, liver and lungs.
• Alec – Oh no. I hate organ recitals.
• Principal – All the teachers complain about you, boy. Can
you imagine why?
• Alec – No sir! I haven’t done anything!
• Principal – You’ve got it exactly right, boy.
• Drama teacher – I told you last week you were too young to
join the drama club.
• Alec – Yes sir. But I’m a week older now.