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I. Cesar Chavez helped the farm workers. He advocated for them. He did not encourage violence. He led a boycott instead of violence. The boycott was an effective method of resistance. (30) III. Cesar Chavez, advocate for farm workers, helped them not by encouraging violence, but by leading a boycott. The boycott was an effective method of resistance.. (25) II. Cesar Chavez helped the farm workers, and he advocated for them. He did not encourage violence. He led a boycott instead of violence, and the boycott was an effective method of resistance. (32) IV. Cesar Chavez, advocate for farm workers, helped them not by encouraging violence, but by leading a boycott, which is an effective method of resistance. (24) Grammar is the most significant determiner of sophisticated style. 1. Grammar is a system of making sentences out of parts. The parts have to match (agree): Number (singular or plural) Gender (masculine, feminine, neutral) Case (subjective, objective, possessive) Tense (past, present, future) 2. Writers and speakers place the parts in a certain order and that order affects the impact of the message. 3. The two main parts of language are nouns and verbs. Everything else either modifies nouns or verbs or joins words, phrases, and clauses. What should the study of grammar accomplish? 1. Better communication between teachers and students about language 2. Understanding the rhetorical effects of grammatical choices: What can a sentence do? How can I be in control of my sentences? The Basics Phrase Group of words, either noun + modifiers or verb + modifiers; not both Clause A noun + verb unit that may or may not be a sentence Sentence An independent clause (noun + verb unit that can stand alone) Two kinds of words: Form Class Words: Nouns Verbs Adjectives Adverbs Structure Class Words: Prepositions Conjunctions Determiners (noun signals) Pronouns Can change form. Can do each other’s jobs sometimes. Cannot change form. We don’t get many new ones. We get new ones. Kinds of Information Noun Phrases: Who? What? Adjective Structures Which one? What kind? How many? Verb structures: What is its action? What is its nature? Adverb structures: Where? When? Why? In what manner? How often? Declarative Can you put It is true that…. in front of it? Subject Wheel tells: Who or what? (or “I intend to prove that…”) Predicate Wheel tells: What about it? Complete Sentence Can you turn it into a yes/no question? Can you add a “Stick-on” question? Isn’t it? Aren’t we?Don’t you? etc. The bicycle as a metaphor for what makes a complete sentence: Subordinate (dependent) clause is like a basket. In can be placed in front, in back, or in the middle of the main clause. From An Easy Guide to Writing by Pamela Dykstra (McGraw Hill) A complete sentence can be turned into a yes/no question: • • • • • • • • • You used to work at Sears. You’ve never worked at Sears. I’ve seen you before. That cute little light green house with the dark green shutters in the middle of town is for sale by owner. Your cousins, the couple with the triplets, live in New Jersey. You don’t live in New Jersey. This is a great movie. Ron Howard directs terrific movies. All Americans of voting age should vote. When you used to work at Sears. Because you used to work at Sears If all Americans of voting age would vote. A movie directed by Ron Howard. Match the“Stick-On” Questions • • • • • • • • • • • You used to work at Sears. You’ve never worked at Sears. I’ve seen you before. That cute little light green house with the dark green shutters in the middle of town is for sale by owner. Your cousins, the couple with the triplets, live in New Jersey. You don’t live in New Jersey. This is a great movie. Ron Howard directs terrific movies. I think. Therefore I am. All Americans of voting age should vote. Haven’t I? Doesn’t he? Aren’t I? Didn’t you? Don’t they? Shouldn’t they? Don’t I? Isn’t it? Isn’t it? Do you? Have you? The sentence-making kit Fold over index card: Outside: The four tests: It is true that….; bicycle (who or what? what about it?; Can you turn it into a yes/no question; Can you add a “ Inside: Useful Prepositions: in, on, at, for, with Coordinating conjunctions: and, but, so Semicolon Common subordinating conjunctions: aaawwubbis: after, as, although, while, when, until, before, because, if, since Conjunctive adverbs: however, moreover, therefore Relative pronouns: that, who, whom, which, what, whatever, whoever, etc. See “Hitching Devices” visual. Noun: Owner’s Manual Congratulations on your wise purchase of a NOUN. Your NOUN may be used to fit into the following frame: The____________. Your NOUN is used to name people, places, things, ideas, qualities, states of mind, and all kinds of other things that need naming. Your NOUN may be easily converted into an adjective. All you have to do is put another NOUN after it and have it make sense. (COW pasture, for example). Your NOUN may be the kind of NOUN that can be made plural. Only NOUNS may be made plural. Your NOUN may be able to be made possessive by adding ‘s. Only NOUNS may be made possessive. When you make your NOUN possessive, it becomes an adjective. You may add all kinds of modifiers before and after your NOUN. You may replace your NOUN along with its modifiers with a pronoun. Feel free to use your NOUN as a subject, direct object, indirect object, object complement, object of a preposition, appositive, or predicate noun Your noun may be called a nominal when we consider it together with its modifiers. Noun phrase expansion standing over the fish bowl the pink adventurous adventurous pink IT in the kitchen Pronoun Case Teams: Subjective Case: Singular Plural I We You You He, She They It Who Objective Case: Possessive Case: Singular Plural Me Us You You Him, Her Them It Whom 1. Direct Object 1. Subject 2. Predicate Noun (After to be) Singular Plural My, Mine Our, Ours Your, Yours Your,Yours His, Her,Hers Their, Theirs Its Whose 1. Preceding a noun* to show ownership 2. Indirect Object 3. Object of a Preposition *including a gerund Write your original sentence here: Write your original sentence here: Write your revised sentence (with appositive) here: An appositive is a noun or pronoun, along with its modifiers, that renames the noun or pronoun that precedes (or, sometimes, follows) it. Appositives are set off by commas. Write your revised sentence (with appositive) here: Adjective: Owner’s Manual Congratulations on your wise purchase of an ADJECTIVE. Your ADJECTIVE may be used to fit into the following frame: The______________truck. Or The truck was very_________. Your ADJECTIVE likes to answer the question What kind? If your ADJECTIVE doesn’t fit into either of these frames, maybe it is the kind of ADJECTIVE that answers the questions Which one? or How many? Your ADJECTIVE may be capable of using the suffixes –er in the comparative form and – est in the superlative form. (If your ADJECTIVE doesn’t like these suffixes, just use more and most to accomplish comparison or superiority.) Your ADJECTIVE reports to your NOUN, and your NOUN can easily become an ADJECTIVE to another NOUN. Often, groups of words decide to get together and do ADJECTIVE-like work. We call such groups of words ADJECTIVALS, and they may be phrases or clauses that operate just like ADJECTIVES, answering those questions that ADJECTIVES answer. Verb: Owner’s Manual Congratulations on your wise purchase of a VERB. Your VERB may be used to fit into the following frame: To______________. Your VERB is the part of the sentence that is capable of turning the sentence into a negative. It is also the part of the sentence that changes when you add yesterday or right now. (If your sentence does not change when you add yesterday to it, then your sentence is in the past tense. If your sentence does not change when you add right now to it, then it is in the present tense.) Your VERB may be an action verb or a linking verb. Action verbs may take direct objects and are modified by adverbs. Linking verbs take predicate nouns and predicate adjectives. You can easily find a list of linking verbs. Your VERB may take auxiliaries (forms of have, be) and modal auxiliaries (could, should, would, can, will, shall, may, might, must). Your VERB sometimes uses a form of the word do to create a sentence, to emphasize, to negate, or to stand in for itself, as in: Do you think so? Yes, I do. Base form: walk, sing Progressive form: walking, singing Past form: walked, sang Participial form: (have) walked, (have sung) Verb Land, USA Active Voice: I stole the cookie from the cookie jar. Passive Voice: The cookie was stolen from the cookie jar by me. (BE + Participial form= passive voice) “Where We Find Out the Action of Things” ACTION TOWN Verbals: 1. Participle: (acts as adjective) ACTION verbs are modified by adverbs:She sings happily. the dancing bear; the stolen cookie 2. Infinitive: (acts as noun) Let us never fear to negotiate. 3. Gerund: (Acts as noun) Teaching makes me happy. ACTION verbs take objective case pronouns as objects: We saw him steal the cookie from the cookie jar. Auxiliaries: Modal Auxiliaries: Would Will Have: creates the perfect tenses Should Shall Could May (has sung, etc.) Can Might Be: creates the Must progressive tenses (am singing, etc.) Auxiliaries and modal auxiliaries combine with action verbs to create various tenses. TO BE: I am,was We are,were You are ;were He, she, it is They are,were Sense Verbs: feel, look, sound smell, taste Also: seem, become, appear grow BE TOWN “Where We Find Out the Nature of Things” BE verbs are completed by adjectives: He is happy. BE verbs take subjective case pronouns as complements: It was I who stole the cookie from the cookie jar. Adverb: Owner’s Manual Congratulations on your wise purchase of an ADVERB. Your ADVERB is very useful for answering one of the following questions: When? Where? Why? How often? To what extent? In what manner? Often, groups of words decide to get together to do ADVERB-like work, and when they do, we call these groups of words ADVERBIALS. ADVERBIALS may be phrases or clauses that answer the questions that ADVERBS answer.. Action verbs are modified by adverbs. bouncy shy friendly shyly vivaciously protectiveprotectively Pepper is… recklessly hungry silly Pepper behaves… Pepper acts…cautiously jovially Pepper looks..l Pepper seems… Pepper became… playfully playful adventurously curiously Linking verbs are completed by adjectives. adventurous curious Linking verbs tell the nature of things. Linking verbs: BE, + sense verbs: look, sound, smell, feel; seem verbs: seem appear, become, grow Morphology Chart Noun: The… Verb: They… Adjective Which one? What kind? How many? The___truck Adverb Where? When? Why? To what extent? In what manner? Possessives his books Michael Michael ‘s books Possessives his books James James ‘s books OR: James’ books Possessives The boys Their troubles Their school Their mother Their mothers The boys’ troubles; the boys’ school; the boys’ mother; the boys’ mothers Possessives The men Their troubles Their school Their mother Their mothers The men’s troubles; the men’s school; the men’s mother; the men’s mothers What is owned is in the backpack. We use an apostrophe to put it in the backpack! The “my” or “his” test: My friend borrowed his IPod. Ichabod’s friend borrowed Mortimer’s IPod. Use the ‘s form any time you could substitute the word “my” or “his” in the phrase.