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Introduction
Grammatical hierarchy(语法层次)
Grammar is the structural system of a language.
The grammar of the English language is
organized into five ranks:the sentence, the
clause, the phrase, the word, and the morpheme.
Each rank is composed of one or more than one
grammatical unit of the immediate lower rank.
Thus the sentence is a grammatical unit that
consists of one or more than one clause; the
clause, one or more than one phrase; the
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phrase, one or more than one word;
and the word, one or more than one
morpheme.
The sentence is the highest rank of
grammatical unit while the morpheme is
the minimum or the lowest rank. A full
sentence can generally be segmented
rank by rank down to its smallest
constituents--- the morphemes.
For example:
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Sentence
Clause
NP
Det
VP
N
Auxv adv. Mv
Prep
Prep.
These under-graduate-s are rapid-ly improv-ing in
Det
their
N
writing.
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(S
NP+VP
NP
Det + N
VP
Vb+NP
Vb
Aux+V
Det {the, a, this, that …}
N {table, girl, boy, letter, undergraduate …}
Aux {will, can, might, should, be …}
V {post, repair, buy, teach, sit …}
（next）
MV
{main verb} )
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1.Morphemes(词素)
The morpheme is the minimum or smallest
grammatical unit, also the smallest
meaningful element of speech. Morphemes
fall into two categories: free morphemes
and bound morphemes.
1)Free morphemes
A free morpheme has a complete meaning
and can stand by itself as a simple word. It
can sometimes act as a complete utterance in
connected speech. For example: desk, chair,
kind, cruel.
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2)Bound morphemes
Bound morphemes are mostly affixes. They
are also meaningful, but the meaning is not
complete in itself unless it is attached to
some other form.
Therefore, a bound
morpheme can not stand by itself, it only
exists as an inflectional or derivational affix.
Ex. Inflectional affixes:----s/es, ----'s, ed/ing,
er/est, ect.
Derivational affixes: prefix & suffix
Unit-war, Marx-ist , un-luck-y
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3) Allomorphs (词素变体)
The same morpheme in different contexts may
take different phonological ( 语 音 上 ) or
orthographical forms. The variants of the
same morpheme are called "allomorphs". For
example:
(orthographical variants )
in---- inactive
incoherent
im---- immature
imperfect
il---- illegal
illogical
ir---- irrational
irregular
(phonological variants)
“s”
cats /s/
dogs /z/
horses /iz/
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2.Words
The word is composed of one or more than one
morpheme. Words can be classified in two
ways:
1)Classification in terms of word-formation
In terms of word-formation, words can be divided into
simple words, derivatives and compounds. (Ex: foot
desk,;unfair;deadline.)
2)Classification
function
in
terms
of
grammatical
In terms of grammatical function, words can be divided
into two main groups: closed-class words and openclass words.
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Closed-class words refer to those sets of
words whose items are “closed”or limited in
number and are only exceptionally extended
by the creation of additional members
(Function word). For example: Prep. Pronoun，
Determiner, conj. Aux V.
Open-class words refer to those sets of words
whose items are indefinitely extendable. New
items are constantly being created and old
items are giving place to new ones(Content
word). Ex., noun., adj., adv., main
verb.[*Cardinal Numeral, Ordinal Numeral
interjection are in between.]
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3.Phrases
The phrase is composed of one or more than
one word. Generally, the phrase is a group of
words organized in a specific way with a key
word as its head. The word class of the head
determines the class of the phrase and the
way in which the words are organized.
1 ) The noun phrase
The noun phrase is a phrase with a noun as its head.
The general pattern of a noun phrase is:
(det. + ) (pre-modifier + ) noun ( + post-modifier )
all the college students
the tall boy sitting in the corner
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2)The verb phrase
The verb phrase is a phrase with a main verb
as its head. A verb phrase can be simple or
complex. A simple verb phrase is just a main
verb of "modifier + main verb". For example,
She looks pale.(她看上去很苍白)
They fully appreciate our problems.
(他们完全意识到了我们的问题)
A complex verb phrase is a main verb
preceded by an auxiliary( auxiliaries )( +
modifier ). For example:
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It is getting dark. (天就要黑了)
She ought to have told him about it. (她本应该早告诉他这
件事)
Joan will certainly object and so will Mary. (琼一定会反对,
玛丽也一样会反对)
3) The adjective phrase
The adjective phrase is a phrase with an
adjective as its head. The general pattern of an
adjective phrase is: ( modifier + ) adj. ( + postmodifier / complementation ). For example:
The weather is fine today.
The course is pretty difficult.
You are not careful enough.
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4)The adverb phrase
The adverb phrase is a phrase with an adverb as its
head. The general pattern of an adverb phrase is:
( modifier + ) adverb ( + post-modifier ). For example:
He spoke loudly and clearly.
She spoke very clearly indeed.
5)The prepositional phrase:
The prepositional phrase is a phrase with a preposition
as its head. The general pattern of a prepositional
phrase is:
(modifier + ) preposition + complementation， eg：
The weather has been fine except in the north.
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4.clause(分句)
The clause is composed of one or more than one
phrase. A full-fledged clause is structurally a
sequence of phrases and logically a construction of
“subject+predicate”. For example:
Sentence
Clause
Subject
Subject
NP
The producers
predicate
verb
VP
are able to supply
object
NP
a small part of our needs.
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1)Independent and dependent clauses(独立
分句和从属分句)
In terms of grammatical function,a clause can
be independent or dependent. An
independent clause is a clause that can stand
by itself and act as a complete utterance, as
distinguished from a dependent clause which
forms only part of another clause or of a
phrase. For example:
(I clause) He knows everything about it.
(D clause) I don't think he knows everything about it.
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(I clause) His new book will soon come out. It is on grammar.
(D clause) His new book that will soon come out is on grammar.
2) Simple and complex clauses
When a clause consists of only one construction of
"subject + predicate", it is a simple clause. An
independent simple clause is at the same time a
simple sentence. For example:
It is not true. (独立简单分句/简单句)
When a clause comprises another clause or other
clauses as its element or elements, it is a complex
clause. An independent complex clause is at the
same time a complex sentence. For example:
What you said is not true. (独立复杂分句/复杂句)
He said that is was not true. (从属简单分句)
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He complained that what you said was not true. (从属
复杂分句)
3) Main and subordinate clauses
In a complex clause, the clause that takes
another clause as its element is the main
clause, while the clause that forms part of the
main clause is a subordinate clause.
For
example:
He complained that what you said was not true.
从句
主句
从句
主句
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4) Finite and non-finite clauses (限定分
句和非限定分句)
A clause can be finite or non-finite. A finite
clause is one with a finite verb phrase as its
predicate verb or predicator; a non-finite clause
is a clause with a non-finite verb phrase (inf., ing, -ed )as its predicator. For example:
He complained that what you said was not true. (finite
clause)
I signed the paper to get the license. (non-finite
clause)
Can't you recall telling me that story last week? (nonfinite clause)
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5.Sentences
The sentence is the highest rank of
grammatical unit. Based on one or
more than one clause, the sentence is
also the basic linguistic unit of
connected discourse. It can stand
alone and perform a function in social
communication. Thus a sentence can
be defined as a grammatical unit that
can stand by itself and perform a
communicative function.
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1 ) Full and minor sentences(完整句子和
不完整句子)
A full sentence is a sentence with an
expressed subject and predicate. This kind of
sentence is mostly used in formal speech and
writing. A minor sentence is only a sentence
fragment which in specific contexts and
situations can stand by itself and perform a
communicative function. Minor sentences are
extensively used in informal discourses.
For example:
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A. When did he arrive? (full sentence)
B. Last night. (minor sentence)
A. Who called this morning? (full sentence)
B. Mr. Jones. (minor sentence)
2) Simple（简单句）, compound（并列
句）, and complex sentences（复杂句）:
A simple sentence is a sentence that
comprises only one independent clause. Two
or more coordinated independent clauses
make a compound sentence. When an
independent clause comprises one or more
dependent clauses as its element(s), this
makes a complex sentence. For example:
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简单句
The students have made better grades in the past few
weeks.
The boy can stay in the room only for a few minutes.
The students I teach have made better grades in the
past few weeks.
并列句
Miss Wang came to the party, but Mr. And Mrs. Sherman
did not.
Most of us are in the ball, the doctors has been closed,
and the latecomers had to wait outside.
复杂句
The students would have made better grades if they had
studied hard.
I didn't understand what he meant.
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一、动词的时态(Tense)
In this lecture we are going to deal with
the features of tense. We will start with
uses of the present tense, the future
tense, the progressive tense, the
perfective tense, the contrast between
the simple past and the present
perfective and the sequence of tenses.
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1）The use of simple present
The simple present can be formed by the
following way:
一般动词
I know it.
You know it.
He/she knows
it.
We/you/they
know it.
动词 to be
动词 to have
I am a student.
I have a bike.
You are a student. You have a bike.
He/she is a
He/she has a
student.
bike.
We/you/they are We/you/they
students.
have a bike.
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•一般现在时主要由动词原形表示，但第三人称
单数后要加词尾-s，
•另外be和 have 有特殊的人称形式。在加词尾
“-s” 时要注意：
情
一般情况
况
加 法
加-s
例 词
reads, writes, says
以ch, sh, x, s或o
加-es
收尾的词
teaches, washes,
guesses, fixes, goes
以“辅音字母+y” 去y变i，再加es
结尾的词
try----tries
carry ----carries
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这和名词复数词尾-s的加法是一样的。词尾
-s的读音也一样，即：
情
况
在[p] [t] [k] [f]
等清辅音后
在[z] [∫] [t∫]
[dз]等音后
在其他情况下
读
法
例
词
[s]
helps, hates,
asks, laughs
[iz]
faces, rises,
washes, urges
[z]
plans, cries,
shows
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The simple present can be used to denote the
following meanings with greater restrictions on
verbs:
A) Timeless Present
The most common use of the simple present is
found in the expression of eternal truths and
proverbs, as well as in scientific, mathematical,
geographical and other statements made for all
time. For example:
A rolling stone _____ no moss.
A. gathering
B. gathered
C. gathers
D. together
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The earth ____ round the sun.
A. revolved
B. revolves
C. is revolving
D. is revolved
B) Habitual present
Nancy often _____ to her office by underground.
A. went
B. goes
C. go
D. gone
C) Momentary and instantaneous present
(表示对现时状态和现在瞬间动作）
For example:
What’s the matter with you ?
You look pale.
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D) Simple present referring to the future
The simple present can also be used to denote
future time. This use is limited to future event
conceived of as “certain”, either because they
are determined in advance by calendar or
timetable, or because they are part of a plan or
an arrangement thought of as unalterable.
Here, we will just mention some sub-clauses in
which the simple present is commonly used in
the future sense. These sub-clauses include the
“that-clause” following “I hope”, “I bet”, etc;
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the “that –clause” following such constructions as
“see to it”, “make sure”, “make certain”; and the
conditional / temporal clause introduced by “if ,
unless , in case ,once ,as long as ,the moment ,
before , as soon as , after ,as , until , till , by the
time ,directly ,immediately” eg:
I hope you have a good time. ( = you’ll have a
good time)
I bet it rains tomorrow. ( = it will rain tomorrow.)
Father will see (to it )that the window is closed.
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We’ll ring you up as soon as we get back.
In addition, some verbs of movement from
one place to another such as “go,come, leave,
start, arrive, begin, return, sail, ” etc. can be used
to express the future sense, but usually used in
simple tense to refer to a future happening
anticipated, arranged or planed, at the present,eg:
He leaves for Beijing tomorrow.
The new students _____the day after tomorrow.
A. arrive
B. are arriving
C. have arrived
D. arrived
（end）
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2) The use of future tense:
In English, future time is expressed by means of
modal auxiliaries, by semi-auxiliaries, or by the
simple present and present progressive forms.
A) The simple future tense:
一般将来时由助动词shall或will加注动词原形构成，shall
用于第一人称，will用于第二、三人称。
这个时态的肯定、否定和疑问结构可表示如下：
肯定句
否定句
疑问句
I (we) shall (will)
go .
You (he, she, they)
will go.
I (we) shall (will) not
go.
You (he, she, they)
will not go.
Shall I (we) go?
Will you (he, she,
they) go?
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The simple future is used to denote the future
time. For example:
You will feel better after taking this medicine.
I’m sure I shan’t lose my way in the woods.
Besides this, some other constructions can
also used to denote future time. For example:
“be going to + infinitive”.
This construction is usually used to express two
meanings: intention, and prediction. In its first use,
the “ be going to ” form implies an intention of doing
something in the near future:
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We’re going to put up a building here.
How are you going to spend your holidays?
In its second use, “ be going to ” can express
the speaker’s feeling of certainty. The time is
usually not mentioned, but the action is expected
to happen in the near or immediate future:
I think it is going to snow.
There’s going to be a lot of trouble about this.
“Present progressive”
The present progressive can refer to a future
happening anticipated at the present. Its basic
meaning is an action that will happen in the near
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future according to a present arrangement, plan, or
program.
As a future form, the present progressive is
widely used with verbs such as “go, come, leave,
start, arrive” etc.
For example：
They’re playing some folk music next.
I’m taking the children to the zoo (on Sunday).
“be to + infinitive”
As a form expressing futurity, the construction
“to be + inf.” can denote a future happening
based on a present plan or arrangement, eg:
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When is the factory to go into production?
(这工厂什么时候投产?)
The line is to be opened to traffic next week.
(这条铁路将在下周通车.)
This construction is very much used to convey
orders, instructions, or prohibitions; it can also
connote possibility or destiny, eg:
Tell her she’s not to be late.(order)
A： You are to stand here.
B：Do you understand? (instruction)
The dictionary is not to be had here.(possibility)
They are to meet next year.(destiny)
（A）
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B> The past future
The future time discussed in the preceding section
is viewed from the present. If the speaker refers to a
future event from a viewpoint in the past, that is past
future. Most of the future construction just discussed
can be used in the past tense to refer to past future
events.
“would + infinitive”
He said he would come back the next day.
“was/were going to + infinitive”
This construction is commonly used with past
future reference clearly indicated in the context, eg:
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He said that he was going to live in the country
when he retired.
It usually occurs in dependent clauses, and if
it occurs in main clauses often denotes an
unfulfilled intention, eg:
Last Sunday we were going to go for a picnic
but it rained.
“was/were to + infinitive”
This construction is commonly used in formal style to
denote a future action based on a past plan or
arrangement. If the plan or arrangement is cancelled
or unfulfilled, we will have to use
“was / were to + perfective infinitive”.
Compare:
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He said that we were to leave at six.
We were to have left at six but it rained.
This construction can also be used in the sense
of “was destined to”, ie. denoting a past destiny:
They said goodbye, little knowing they were
never to meet again.
“past progressive and simple past”(表示将来概念时
的区别)
The past progressive can express an
arrangement predetermined in the past, eg:
He hurried into the carriage. The train was leaving in
two minutes.
For past future reference, the simple past is
commonly found in adverbial clauses of condition
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and in those of time, eg:
He said he would tell her all about it if he met her.
She told me that she would come to see me when she visited
china again.
“was/were about to + infinitive”
This semi-auxiliary construction expresses the
immediate future in the past. In some context,
it is often used in the sense of an unfulfilled
intention. Compare:
I felt that something terrible was about to happen.(usage1)
We were about to start when it began to rain.(usage2)
The prisoner was about to escape, but the policemen appeared
before him. (usage2)
（end）
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3）进行时的几种特殊用法
A）Uses of the present progressive
Present progressive （am/is/are+-ing participle）
has the following uses：
a)To denote an action in progress at the
moment of speaking
To denote what is going on at the present
moment ,we commonly use the present
progressive,generally associated with durative
dynamic verbs, eg:
A: what are you doing?
B: I’m writing a letter.
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The difference between the simple present
and the present progressive referring to
present time is that the former carries a
permanent meaning. And the latter a
temporary meaning. Compare:
He lives in Changchun.(permanent residence)
He is living in Changchun.(temporary residence)
b) To denote an action in progress at a
period of time including the present
The present progressive can also express an
action that is going on over a period of time
including the present but not necessarily at
the moment of speaking , that is, a temporary
habit as distinguished
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from the permanent habit denoted by the
simple present. Compare:
He works in a chemical factory. (经常性工作)
He is working in a chemical factory these days. (临时
性工作)
Note that the present progressive when
accompanied by an adverbial of frequency
such as “always, continually, constantly, or
forever” often imparts an emotional colouring,
often of annoyance or disapproval. By
contrast, the simple present lacks the
subjective, emotional tone of the present
progressive and states a fact objectively.
Compare:
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She complains about the house.(说明事实)
She is constantly complaining about the house. (表示说
话人对“she”的行为的厌烦)
How are you feeling today? (比How do you feel today?
显得更亲切)
Xiao hua is doing fine work at school. (比Xiao hua
does fine work at school 更富有赞美的意思)
He is always thinking of his work. (表示赞许)
He is constantly leaving his things about. (表示不满)
New varieties are appearing all the time. (表示高兴)
We’are now hauling in ten times more fish than before.
(表示满意)
He is always boasting. (表示厌烦)
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c）To denote a future happening
according to a definite plan or
arrangement
We have mentioned this use in the previous
lecture:
Mr.Cameron is leaving China in a few weeks.
I’m going to Qingdao for the summer holiday.
d)To denote other meanings
“be”间或可用于进行时态,表示一时的表现:
You’re not being modest.(你这样说不太谦虚。)
He’s being silly.(他这样做是发傻。)
She’s being friendly.(她这样是为了表示友好。)
Lili is being a good girl today.(丽丽今天很乖。)
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下列动词，因含有“状态的继续”的意味，通常
不用于现在进行时：
（A）
用
法
例
子
存在，位置
be （是），lie（位于），stand （位于）…
所有
have(有),own(拥有)possess(拥有),belong to
(拥有)…
知觉
see,hear,seem,appear,smell,taste,sound,feel…
知识
know,understand,think(认为)…
情感
like,love,hate,want,hope,wish,prefer…
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B)The use of the past progressive
The use of the past progressive(was/were+-ing
participle) has much in common with that of the
present progressive, only the time reference being
pushed back to the past, often overtly expressed by a
time –when adverbial. The following are the uses of
the past progressive.
a)To denote an action in progress at a
definite point or period of past time
This is the most common use of the past progressive.
In this use, the past time reference is usually
indicated by a temporal adverbial or implied by the
context. For example,
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They were building a dam last winter.
The students were watching TV at seven p.m.
b)To denote a past habitual action
The habitual action denoted by the past
progressive is most clearly characterized by its
temporariness, in contrast with the past habit
denoted by the simple past, eg:
George was getting up at five every day that week.
As in the case of the present progressive, the
past progressive can also collocate with such
adverbials of frequency as “ always, constantly,
continually, forever, ect.” To express emotional
feelings,
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especially feelings of annoyance or
disapproval on the part of the speaker, eg:
All the time he was thinking of his work.(他总是在想
他的工作。)
She was always working like that.(她总是那样地工
作。)
He was forever complaining about something.（他老
是怨这怨那。）
They were constantly making trouble.( 他 们 不 断 捣
乱。)
c）To denote futurity in the past
In specific contexts ， the past progressive can be
used to denote a future action in the past according
to a definite plan or arrangement. This use is also
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found in some adverbial clauses of time or
condition, eg:
They were leaving a few days later.
He told me to wake him up if he was sleeping. ( 表示
过去将来时间正在进行的动作。)
d) To make polite requests
The past progressive has a similar function to
that of the simple past and of the present
progressive. Of the three forms, the past
progressive is the most tentative in making
polite requests. Compare:
I hope you can send me some books.
I hoped you could send me some books.
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I am hoping you can send me some books.
I was hoping you could send me some books.
以上四例只有婉转程度的区别，而没有时间关系
的差别。这四种动词形式都表示现在的请求。
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