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English Essentials
Chapter 1
Conventions ML #1
Subjects and Verbs
 Subject- the person, place, thing, or idea
that the sentence is about.
 Ask yourself, “Who or what is the
sentence about?”
 Example: People applauded.
 Example: Gloria wrote the answers on
the board.
 It will always be a noun- person, place,
thing, idea- or a pronoun- I, you, he, she,
it, we, they- that can take the place of a
noun.
Verbs
 Verbs- many verbs express action;
they tell what the subject is doing.
 You can find an action verb by
asking, “What does the subject do?”
 People applauded.
 Gloria wrote the answers on the
board.
Linking Verbs and Helping
Verbs
 Some verbs do not show action; they
are called linking verbs- is, are, was,
were- join the subject to something that
is said about the subject.
 Gloria is a teacher.
 Some verbs consist of more than one
word- a helping verb plus the main verb
 Gloria has written the answer on the
board.
More Practice with Subjects and
Verbs…and Prepositional phrases
 A prepositional phrase is a group of words that
begins with a preposition (words like about, after, at,
before, between, by, during, for, from, in, into, like,
of, on, outside, over, through, to, toward, with,
without) and ends with a noun.
 Getting rid of the prepositional phrases can help you
find the subject and verb.
 Ex. The coffee from the leaking pot stained the
carpet.
 Ex.- One of my classmates fell asleep during class.
Hint: If a word can complete the following sentence, then it is likely a
preposition, and begins a prepositional phrase. The squirrel ran
_____________ the trees. Keep in mind that not every preposition works
here, but it’s still a decent reminder of what prepositions are.
Conventions ML#2- Irregular
Verbs
 Most verbs are regular. That is, they form their
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past tense and past participle by adding –ed or
–d to the basic form:
Ask, asked, have asked
Raise, raised, have raised
Some English verbs are irregular. They do not
form their past tense this way:
Become, became, has become
Break, broke, broken
Bring, brought, has brought
A Note on Helping Verbs
 Many verbs consist of a main verb plus one or
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more helping verbs. Helping verbs are shown
below.
Forms of be: be, am, is, are, was, were, being,
been
Forms of have: have, has, had
Forms of do: do, does, did
Special verbs: can, could, may, might, must,
ought (to), shall, should, will, would
A couple hints…
 If your sentence does not have a helping verb,
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choose the past tense form.
I ate a bacon, lettuce, and tomato sandwich.
If the sentence does have a helping verb,
choose the past participle.
I had eaten a bacon, lettuce, and tomato
sandwich
Do the “Irregular Verb” exercises on
www.townsendpress.net
Conventions ML #3 - Subject
and Verb Agreement
 The subject and verb should agree in number. Singular
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subjects have singular verbs, and plural subjects have
plural verbs.
Ex. Our baby sleeps more than ten hours a day. Some
babies sleep even longer.
Sometimes the subject (noun) and the verb are
separated by a prepositional phrase, so take the phrase
out to see if the subject and verb agree.
Ex. A small bag of potato chips contains 440 calories.
Remove the prepositional phrase.
A small bag contains 440 calories.
Subject Verb Agreement- Hints
 Has,Is = singular verbs
 Have, Are = plural verbs
 Ex. The tomatoes in this salad are brown and
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mushy.
Ex. The tomato in this salad is brown and
mushy.
Compound subjects are made up of two nouns
connected by a joining word like –and-. These
usually take a plural verb.
Ex. Fear and ignorance have a lot to do with
hatred.
Ex. Fear has a lot to do with hatred.
Conventions ML # 4-Sentence
Types
 There are 3 basic kinds of sentences in English:
1. A simple sentence has only one subject-verb combination and
expresses one complete thought.
 Ex.- Our daughter cooked dinner tonight.
2. A compound sentence is made up of two or more complete
thoughts, usually by using a comma and a joining word, we can
combine two simple sentences.
 Ex. Rose wants chili for dinner, but she forgot to buy beans.
 Hint: Remember FANBOYS in the middle of a sentence should
have a comma before them
 For
 And
 Nor
 But
 Or
 Yet
 So
3. Complex Sentences are made up of one
complete thought and a thought that
begins with a dependent word like -after,
although, as, because, before, if, since,
unless, when, where, where, and while.
 Hint: a comma is placed after a
dependent statement when it starts a
sentence
 Ex. Although I had a free ticket to the
game, I was too tired to go.
Conventions ML # 4Fragments (Part I)
 To be a complete sentence, a group of words
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must contain a subject and a verb. It must also
express a complete thought. If it lacks a
subject, verb, or a complete thought, it is a
fragment.
The most common type of fragment is the
dependent-word fragment, which has a subject
and a verb but not a complete thought.
Ex. Because Laura was tired.
Ex. Because Laura was tired, she took a nap.
Let’s Practice!
A Note on Dependent Words
Examples of Dependent Words: after, although,
as, because, before, if, since, unless, when,
where, and while.
 Hint: If a dependent clause starts a sentence, a
comma is placed after a dependent clause Ex.
Although I had a free ticket to the game, I was
too tired to go.
Fragments (Part II)

In addition to dependent-word fragments, there are
three other common types of fragments:
1. Fragments without a subject
Ex. Joe lowered himself from the van into his wheelchair.
And then rolled up the sidewalk ramp.
You can fix such a fragment by adding it to the sentence
that comes before it.
Ex. Joe lowered himself from the van into his wheelchair,
and then rolled up the sidewalk ramp.
-Ing and To Fragments
2. When –ing appears at or near the beginning of
a word group, a fragment may result
 Ex.- Hoping to furnish their new home cheaply.
The newlyweds go to garage sales.
3. A fragment may also result when a word group
begins with to followed by a verb.
 Ex.- Leo jogged through the park. To clear his
mind before the midterm.
Comma Hint: When an –ing or to word group
starts a sentence, follow it with a comma.
Conventions ML # 5-Run-Ons
and Comma Splices I
 A run-on is made up of two complete thoughts that are
incorrectly run together without a connection.
 Ex. Dolphins have killed sharks they never attack
humans.
 A comma splice is made up of two complete thoughts
that are incorrectly joined (or spliced) together with only
a comma.
 Ex. Dolphins have killed sharks, they never attack
humans.
How to Correct Run-Ons and
Comma Splices
 Method 1- Use a period and a capital letter.
 Run-on: The computer hummed loudly the
sound was annoying.
 Comma Splice: The computer hummed loudly,
the sound was annoying.
 Correct.- The computer hummed loudly. The
sound was annoying.
 Method 2- Use a comma and a joining word
(FANBOYS- For, And, Nor, But, Or, Yet, So) Hint: the
comma comes BEFORE the FANBOYS, and can be
called coordinating conjunctions or joining words)
 Run-on: Dolphins have killed sharks they never attack
humans.
 Comma splice: Dolphins have killed sharks, they never
attack humans.
 Correct- Dolphins have killed sharks, but they never
attack humans.
Run- Ons and Comma Splices
(Part II)
 Another way to fix a run-on or comma splice is to add a
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dependent word to one of the complete thoughts.
The sentence will then include one thought that
depends upon the remaining complete thought for its full
meaning.
Run-on: Dolphins have killed sharks they never attack
humans.
Comma splice: Dolphins have killed sharks, they never
attack humans.
Correct: Although dolphins have killed sharks, they
never kill humans.
Comma Hint: Notice again that when a dependent
clause starts a sentence, a comma must follow the
clause.
Conventions ML # 6- The
Comma- The 4 Main Uses
1.
To separate three or more items in a series.
Example: The school cafeteria has learned not to serve broccoli,
spinach, or Brussels sprouts (except on the ACT, where you would
omit a comma before FANBOYS at the end of a list)
2.
To separate introductory material from the rest of the sentence.
Example: After taking a hot shower, Vince fell asleep on the sofa.
3.
To join two complete thoughts connected by FANBOYS.
4.
Example: Lee broke her leg in the accident, and her car was badly
damaged.
Using two commas to set apart extra information in the middle of a
sentence (parenthetical phrases/ appositives)
Example: Mike, who lives in Michigan, loves the tigers.
ACT Hints
 In order to use a comma, only one side of the sentence
should be able to stand alone. (Except for FANBOYS)
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Correct: Because he worked so hard, Mike was able to make the
basketball team.
Incorrect: The class is over, now I can go home.
 Almost always, whenever three answer choices which all say
the same thing have commas, and the fourth answer choice
does not have a comma, the answer choice without the
comma is correct. – Only true for the ACT test
 Don’t use a comma just because a sentence contains
FANBOYS, only use it when the FANBOYS come between
two complete thoughts.
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Comma: Lee broke her leg in the accident, and her car was
damaged.
No Comma: Lee broke her leg in the accident and badly damaged
her car.
Conventions ML # 7- The Two
Main Uses of the Apostrophe
1.
The apostrophe takes the place of one or more missing letters in a
contraction. (A contraction is a word formed by combining two or
more words, leaving some of the letters out.)
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I am sleepy – I’m sleepy.
Hank did not know the answer– Hank didn’t know the answer.
They + would = They’d
It + is = it’s
Does + not = doesn’t
Do + not = don’t
She + will = she’ll
He + is = he’s
We + have = we’ve
Could + not = couldn’t
Will + not = won’t
2.
The apostrophe shows that something belongs to someone or
something. (This is called possession.)
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The fin of the shark– The shark’s fin
The fins of the sharks– the sharks’ fins (To show plural possession,
make the noun plural first. Then immediately use the apostrophe. )
Examples: two boys' hats, two women's hats, two actresses' hats,
two children's hats, the Changs' house
NOTE: Never use an apostrophe with possessive pronouns: his, hers, its,
theirs, ours, yours, whose. They already show possession so they do not
require an apostrophe.
Examples: Correct: This book is hers, not yours.
Incorrect: Sincerely your's.
Conventions ML # 8- Basics
about the Quotation Marks
 Use quotation marks to set off all exact words of a
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speaker or writer.
Example: The little girl’s mother said, “It wasn’t nice to fill
up the sugar bowl with salt.” –Where does the comma go?
Example: “I’m afraid,” the mechanic muttered to Fred, “that
your car is in big trouble.”- Where does the period go?
Example: “Our math teacher is unfair,” whined Wanda.
“He assigns two hours of homework for each class. Does
he think we have nothing else to do?”
Example: “We cannot solve a problem by hoping someone
else will solve it for us,” wrote psychiatrist M. Scott Peck.
More Quotation Mark Notes
 Quoted material is usually set off from the rest of the
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sentence by a comma. When the comma comes at the end
of quoted material, it is included inside the quotation
marks. The same is true for a period, exclamation point, or
question mark that ends quoted materials.
Incorrect- “Aren’t you ready yet”? Dad yelled. “Hurry up, or
we’re leaving without you”!
Correct- “Aren’t you ready yet?” Dad yelled. “Hurry up, or
we’re leaving without you!”
A quoted sentence usually begins with a capital letter, even
when it is preceded by other words.
Incorrect- The diner asked suspiciously, “is this fish fresh?”
Correct- The diner asked suspiciously, “Is this fish fresh?”
Other Uses of Quotation
Marks
 Always put semicolons and colons outside quotation marks
 Ex- He said, “Trials are like games”; I’m not so sure I agree.
 Use quotation marks to enclose slang words, unusual
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expressions, technical terms, and definitions of words
Example: The gangster hired a “mouthpiece” to represent
him in court.
Italicize an unfamiliar foreign word or a word referred to as a
word.
Example: Her concern with bella figura made her look down
on those who neglected their appearance.
Example: The words you and ewe are homophones.
Practice Exercise: pg. 295- Do the evens- 2-10
Use Quotations for short works
like…
 Short Story- “All Summer in a Day” by Ray Bradbury
 Chapters- Chapter 4, “The Prosecution Rests”
 Articles-“Ants and Plants” in National Geographic
 Essays- “Civil Disobedience” by Thoreau
 Television Episodes- The Simpsons’ “Treehouse of
Terror”
 Short Poems- “I, Too” by Langston Hughes
 Songs- “The Climb” by Miley Cyrus
Use Italics (when typing) or
underline (when handwriting) for
longer pieces like…
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Books- The Scarlet Letter
Newspaper- The Detroit Free Press
Magazine- Rolling Stone
Work of Art- Starry Night
Television Series- Glee
Movie- Star Wars
Play- Romeo and Juliet
Long Poem- The Odyssey
Long Musical/ Artistic Work- Swan Lake
Vehicle (ship, train, aircraft, spacecraft)- The Edmund
Fitzgerald
Convention ML #9Homonyms
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1.
2.
3.
4.
Homonyms- two or more words that have the same
sound but different spellings and meanings.
The following four cause the most trouble:
Its (possessive) it’s (contraction of it is)
Their (possessive)
there (in or to that place)
they’re (contraction of they are)
To (in order to) too (overly, extremely, also) two (the
number)
Your (possessive) you’re (contraction of you are)
Other common homonyms…
 Brake (slow or stop) break (to cause to come
apart
 Hear (take in by ear) here (in this place)
 Hole (an empty spot) whole (complete)
 Know (to understand) no (to opposite of yes)
 Right (correct) write (to form letters and words)
 Whose (belonging to whom) who’s (contraction
of who is)
Past vs. Passed
 Past – relates to location
 The word past locates something in time, and sometimes in
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space. It can be used as an adjective, noun, adverb, or
preposition.
“The days for mourning are now past.” (adjective)
“In the past, standards were higher.” (noun)
“My house is the one just past the turn.” (preposition)
Passed – a verb in the past tense
“The weeks passed quickly.” (hint: check your work. If it’s
not being used as a verb, you should be using past)
“My grandmother passed away.”
Six More Homonyms
 Knew (past tense of know) new (not old)
 Peace (absence of war; quiet) piece (part of
something)
 Plain (not fancy; obvious; field) plane (airplane;
describing a flat surface)
 Threw (past tense of throw) through (into and out
of; finished)
 Wear (to have on- clothing) where (in what
place)
 Weather (outside conditions) whether (if)
ML # 10- Capital Letters
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1.
Six main uses of capital letters
First word in a sentence or direct quotation
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2.
3.
The word “I” and people’s names
Names of specific places, institutions, and languages
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4.
Janice, who lives in Boston and works as a lab technician at Newton
Hospital, grew up speaking Spanish and English.
Product names- capitalize the brand name of the product, but not the
kind of product it is
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5.
6.
The ice-cream man said, “Try a frozen banana bar”
Every morning I have Tropicana orange juice and Total cereal with milk
Calendar items- capitalize the days of the week, months, and holidays
Titles- capitalize books, TV or stage shows, songs, magazines, articles,
poems, etc.
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Note: The words the, of a , an, and, and other little, unstressed
words are not capitalized when they appear in the middle of a title.
Example: “The Portrayal of Women in Rap Music Videos.”
ML #10 Continued- Other
Capitalization Do’s and Don’ts
 DO-Capitalize family names used before a proper noun or used in
place of a name
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When Grandma drove to her kickboxing class, she saw Uncle
Edward.
 DON’T- capitalize family names preceded by articles (a, an, the) or
possessive words.
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After my father moved here, he called his cousin.
 DO- Capitalize specific people and cultures and religious terms
(religions and followers, sacred days, sacred writings, specific
deities)
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Many Afghani people practice Islam and study the Koran.
 DON’T- capitalize the words god and goddess when they refer to
the deities of ancient mythology.

The Olympic athletes honored Nike, the Greek goddess of victory.
Yeah, there’s still more to
learn about Capitalization
 DO- capitalize the names of specific places and regions

Take Pennsylvania Avenue to Highway 101, and that should lead you to Laurel
Lake.
 DO- capitalize words that refer to sections of the country.
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The South has produced many great writers.
 DON’T- capitalize words that refer to compass directions/

These days, fewer birds head south for the winter.
 DO- capitalize historical events and historical periods

The Reign of Terror did not take place during the Jurassic Period.
 DON’T – capitalize the names of seasons: spring, summer, winter, autumn
 DO- capitalize the names of school subjects when they refer to specific courses

My most difficult class is Physics 101.
 DON’T- capitalize the words freshmen, sophomore, junior, or senior except
when they are part of a proper noun.

The sophomores are not usually invited to the Junior Prom.
ML #11- Parallelism
 Two or more equal ideas should be expressed in
parallel, or matching form. Parallelism will help
your words flow smoothly and clearly.
 Not parallel: The new restaurant has fresh food,
reasonable prices, and service that is fast.
 Parallel: The new restaurant has fresh food,
reasonable prices, and fast service.
More Parallelism
 The children were arguing in the lobby, talked
during the movie, and complained on the ride
home.
 The children were arguing in the lobby, talking
during the movie, and complaining on the ride
home.
 The children argued in the lobby, talked
during the movie, and complained on the ride
home.
ML #12- Comma Review
1.
Use a comma to separate independent clauses joined
by a coordinating conjunction (FANBOYS)- The
comma comes before the FANBOYS.
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2.
Use commas to separate items in a series.
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3.
He wanted to be a salesman, but no jobs were available.
He went to the basement, set the trap and returned to the
kitchen to wait
Use commas to separate coordinate adjectives that
describe the same noun.
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He washed his new, black, shiny pickup.
4. Use commas to set off amplifying or explanatory
phrases and clauses from the rest of the sentence.
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Having spent his last penny, Lenny tried to borrow a
quarter from his boss.
5. Use a comma to set off contrasting and nonessential
phrases and clauses.
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Mary Jennings, who was my best friend, dropped the
class.
6. Use commas to set off an appositive. (An appositive is
a noun or noun phrase that renames or explains the
noun it follows.
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The novel, a mystery about a secret island, was an instant
bestseller.
7. Use commas to set off words in direct address, or
those words that identify the one being spoken to.

Excuse me, Beth, but aren’t you late for your tennis
lesson?
ML #12 Continued- Comma
DON’Ts
 DON’T- use a comma after a subject or verb. (It interrupts the flow.)
Wrong: The retiring teacher, was applauded more than he expected
Right: The retiring teacher was applauded more than he expected.
 DON’T- use a comma when it separates a pair of words, phrases, or
clauses joined by and, or, and nor. Remember, both parts of the
sentence should be able to stand alone if the FANBOYS are
removed.
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Wrong: The Pacific Pelican population has been seriously affected
by DDT, and by greedy fisherman.
Right: The Pacific Pelican population has been seriously affected by
DDT and by greedy fisherman.
 DON’T- Use a comma after a FANBOYS or
words like although, because, when, since, etc.
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Wrong: Although, most families eat around their
television sets, mine does not.
Right: Although most families eat around their
television sets, mine does not.
Wrong: Secluded little islands in the Pacific are
restful and, alluring.
Right: Secluded little islands in the Pacific are
restful and alluring.
 DON’T- use a comma to begin a list or series.
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Wrong: Secretaries today need skills in, typing,
working on a computer, using a calculator and
organizing the work flow.
Right: Secretaries today need skills in typing,
working on a computer, using a calculator and
organizing the work flow.
ML #13- Punctuation Marks
 The Period (.)- use it at the end of a statement, mild
command, or an indirect question.

I wonder if there will be a quiz today.
 The Question Mark (?)- after a sentence that asks a
question.

“Can I have your phone number?” Susanne asked Phil.
 The Exclamation Point (!)- after a word or statement
that expresses extreme emotion or that uses a strong
command.

Note: Exclamation points lose their power if they are used
too frequently. Use them sparingly.
The Colon

1.
Directs attention to what follows. It has three main
uses:
Use a colon to introduce a list
1.
2.
Use a colon to introduce a long or formal quotation.
1.
3.
On her first day of vacation, Carrie did three things: she
watched a funny movie, took a long nap, and ate at her
favorite restaurant.
The autobiography of Arthur Ashe begins with the following
Biblical quotation: Since we are surrounded by so great a
cloud of witnesses, let us lay aside every weight…” and so
on.
Use a colon to introduce an explanation.
1.
Bert suddenly canceled his evening plans for a simple
reason: his car was out of gas.
Conventions ML #13- The
Semicolon ;
 The semicolon is used to separate similar items in a
sentence. Most often, it is used between related ideas
that are grammatically similar that require punctuation
weaker than a period, but stronger than a comma.
 Use it to divide three or more items in a series when the
clauses themselves contain commas

Example: The warranty on the car covered extensive repairs
to the electrical system, front end, transmission, fuel injection
system and valves; but the amount of time and inconvenience
involved in returning each time to the dealer cannot be ignored.
 Use it between related independent clauses not joined by
FANBOYS
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A mature male gorilla may be six feet tall and weigh 400
pounds or more; his enormous arms can span eight feet.
New York has twelve major stadiums; Los Angeles has fifteen
 Use it between independent clauses joined by a
transitional word (accordingly, also, consequently, finally,
furthermore, however, indeed, meanwhile, nevertheless,
similarly, still, therefore, thus, etc.)

A female coyote will not bear pups if her diet consists of fewer
than fifty rodents a week; thus, Mother Nature achieves a
population balance.
 Use a semicolon to separate items in a series
when the items themselves contain internal
punctuation

The trio was composed of a cellist named Grosz,
who had been a European virtuoso for many
years; a pianist who had won a major music
festival in 1954, 1955, and 1958; and a violinist
who had studied in Budapest, Vienna and Munich.
Don’t use a semicolon when:
 You are introducing a series or explanation.
(That’s what we use colons and dashes for).
 Faulty: Sue and Matt quickly stowed the
supplies they needed into the canoe; the
sleeping bags, four large jugs of water, spare
boots and socks, and enough food to last them
three days.
 Revised: Sue and Matt quickly stowed the
supplies they needed into the canoe – the
sleeping bags, four large jugs of water, spare
boots and socks and enough food to last them
three days.
Conventions ML #16- Pronoun
Forms

A Pronoun is a word that can be used in place
of a noun.
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1.
Mel scrubbed the potatoes. Then he peeled
some carrots.
There are four ways we typically use
pronouns:
Subject pronouns- act as the subjects of a
sentence.
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I have an itch.
She always remembers her nieces’ birthdays.
2. Object Pronouns- the object of a sentence is
the word that receives the action of the verb.
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Clara pinched him.
Jeff is addicted to Coca-Cola. He drinks it for
breakfast.
3. Possessive Pronouns- show that something is
owned or possessed.
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If Lucille needs a sweater, she can borrow mine.
The house lost most of its roof during the tornado.
 Possessive pronouns never contain an
apostrophe!
4.
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Pronouns with AND and OR
Use a subject pronoun for the subject of a verb. (I)
Use an object pronoun for the object of a verb or
preposition. (Me)
My brother and I loved the Wizard of Oz books.
Our parents often read to my brother and me.
Hint: Try omitting words to figure it out
Either Gene or (I, Me) drove. I can’t remember
whether Katie Davis went with him or (I, Me)
4.
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Pronouns with AND and OR
Use a subject pronoun for the subject of a verb.
Use an object pronoun for the object of a verb or
preposition.
My brother and I loved the Wizard of Oz books.
Our parents often read to my brother and me.
Hint: Try omitting words to figure it out
Either I drove. I can’t remember whether Katie Davis
went with me.
 When pronouns are used in comparisons, they often
follow the word than or as.

My best friend, Matt, is a better athlete than I.
 Words are often omitted in comparisons to avoid
repetition. To see whether you should use a subject or
an object pronoun, mentally fill in the missing words.

My best friend, Matt, is a better athlete than I [am].
 Brad was my first crush. I never adored anyone as
much as (he, him).
 I had never met anyone as playful and kind as (he,
him).
Whom vs. Who
 When the pronoun is receiving the action (the
object) then you must use whom

Whom did you contact?
 When the pronoun is performing the action
(the subject), the nominative who must be
used

Who did you say is running the dance?
Conventions ML #17- Three
Common Pronoun Problems Pronoun shifts in number Incorrect: Each of my sisters has their own mom.
 Correct: Each of my sisters has her own room.
 Pronouns shifts in person Incorrect: One’s patience runs thin when I am faced with a
slow-moving line at the bank.
 Correct: My patience runs thin when I am faced with a slowmoving line at the bank.
 Unclear pronoun reference
 Incorrect: Michael gave Arnie his car keys.
 Correct: Michael gave his car keys to Arnie.
Pronoun Problems
 Indefinite Pronouns- do not refer to particular
persons and things. Treat them as though they
are singular.
 Anybody, anyone, anything, each, either, etc.


Something has left its muddy footprints on the
hood of the car.
One of my sisters has lost her job.
A note on Gender Agreement
 Choose a pronoun that agrees in gender with the noun it
refers to. If you’re not sure what the gender is, use his or
her, or change the sentence to a plural subject.

People are entitled to change their minds.
 The following pronouns are always plural: both, few,
many, other, several

Both of my brothers worked their way through college.
 The following pronouns are singular or plural, depending
on the context: all, any, more, most, none, some


Some of the pie is fine, but its crust is burnt.
Some of the students forgot their books.
A Note on Collective Nouns
 A collective noun refers to a group of persons or
things considered to be a unit. Collective nouns
are usually singular.


Audience, committee, group, herd, quartet, team,
family, class, etc.
The class started late, and it ended early.
 However, if a collective noun refers to the
individual members of the group, a plural noun
is used.

The class members handed in their essays before
vacation.
Pronoun Shifts in Person
 A pronoun that refers to the person who is speaking is called a
first-person pronoun

I, me, our
 A pronoun that refers to someone being spoken to, such as you, is
a second-person pronoun

You, your, yours
 A pronoun that refers to another person or thing is a third-person
pronoun

He, she, it
 When a writer makes unnecessary shifts in person, the writing can
become unclear.

The worst thing about my not writing letters is that you never get
any back.
Unclear Pronoun Reference
 A pronoun must refer clearly to its antecedent –
the word it stands for. Sometimes pronouns
are unclear because they have two
antecedents.


I wrote a to-do list with my purple pen, and now I
can’t find it.
Can’t find the list…or the purple pen?
 Sometimes the best solution is to replace the
pronoun with the word it is meant to replace.

I wrote a to-do list with my purple pen, and now I
can’t find the list.
No Antecedent
 A pronoun’s reference will not be clear if there is no
antecedent.

I just received our cable TV bill. They said the Disney
Channel is providing a free preview next month. Who said
there’s a free preview? They doesn’t refer to anyone.
 To fix the unclear reference, replace the pronoun with
the word it’s meant to refer to.

I just received our cable TV bill. The cable company said the
Disney Channel is providing a free preview next month.
Conventions ML # 18Adjectives & Adverbs
 Identifying Adjectives and Adverbs
 An adjective describes a noun or pronoun. It generally
answers such questions as “What kind? Which one?
How many?”
 It may come before the noun or pronoun it describes



The weary hikers shuffled down the dusty road.
The green car has two antennas
Don’t go to the new movie at the mall unless you want a
good nap.
Conventions ML # 18Adjectives & Adverbs
 Identifying Adjectives and Adverbs
 An adjective describes a noun or pronoun. It generally
answers such questions as “What kind? Which one?
How many?”
 It may come before the noun or pronoun it describes



The weary hikers shuffled down the dusty road.
The green car has two antennas
Don’t go to the new movie at the mall unless you want a
good nap.
More Adjectives
 An adjective that describes the subject of
a sentence may also come after a linking
verb (such as be, is, seem, and were)

The dog’s skin is wrinkled and dry.
Adverbs
 A word that describes a verb, an adjective, or another
adverb. Many adverbs end in –ly.
 Adverbs generally answer questions like “How? When?
Where? How much?”



The chef carefully spread raspberry frosting over the cake.
The robber stood there.
The lamp shines very brightly.
 Be careful to use an adverb – not an adjective – with
an action verb.


Incorrect: The boss slept sound at his desk.
Correct: The boss slept soundly at his desk.
Using Adjectives and Adverbs
in Comparisons
 Comparing two things- in general, to compare
two things, add –er to adjectives and adverbs of
one syllable.

Grilling food is faster than roasting.
 For longer adjectives and adverbs, do not add –
er. Instead, add the word more when
comparing two things.


My dog is more intelligent that my cat.
Marie sings more sweetly than I do.
Comparing Three Things
 To compare three or more things, add –est to
adjectives and adverbs of one syllable.

Grilling food is faster than roasting, but
microwaving is fastest of all.
 For longer adjectives and adverbs, do not add
–est. Instead, add the word most when
comparing three or more things.

My dog is more intelligent than my cat, but my
parrot is the most intelligent pet I have ever had.
Notes about Comparisons
 Do not use both an –er ending and more, or an –est
ending and most.


Incorrect: My uncle’s hair is more curlier than my aunt’s.
Correct: My uncle’s hair is curlier than my aunt’s.
 Certain short adjectives and adverbs have irregular




forms.
Bad, badly
Good, well
Little
Much, many
worse
better
less
more
worst
best
least
most
Two Troublesome Pairs:
Good and well, bad and badly
 Good is an adjective that often means enjoyable,
talented, or positive. It must modify a noun.



I had a good day.
Sue is a good skier.
Think good thoughts.
 As an adverb, well often means “skillfully” or
“successfully,” and it modifies a verb.


Sue skis well.
The schedule worked well.
 As an adjective, well means “healthy”
 The patient is well once again.
Bad vs. Badly
 Bad is an adjective (describes a noun).
Badly is an adverb (describes a verb).


He is bad.
I need sleep badly.
Continuation of ML #18
 Avoiding Double Negatives
 In English, it is incorrect to express a negative
idea by pairing one negative with another.
 Not, nothing, never, nowhere, nobody, neither,
hardly, scarcely, barely


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Incorrect: I shouldn’t go nowhere this weekend.
Correct: I should go nowhere this weekend.
Correct: I shouldn’t go anywhere this weekend.
Incorrect: I couldn’t scarcely recognize you.
Correct: I could scarcely recognize you.
ML #19 Misplaced and
Dangling Modifiers
 A modifier is one or more words that describe
another word or word group.
The
modifier

My cousin has a cat with all-white fur

The woman behind the cash register is the owner
of the store.
Misplaced Modifiers
 Sometimes a modifier is incorrectly separated from the
word or words that it describes. This can confuse the
meaning.
 Solution: Try to place the modifier as close to the word
that it modifies as possible.


Misplaced: Sam bought a used car from a local dealer with a
smoky tailpipe.
Corrected: Sam bought a used car with a smoky tailpipe from
a local dealer.
 Fix this: The robin built a nest at the back of our house of
grass and string.
Single-Word Modifiers
 Certain single-word modifiers – such as almost,
only, nearly, and even – limit the words they
modify. They need to be placed before the word
they modify.
 Misplaced: Christie almost sneezed fifteen times
last evening.
 Corrected: Christie sneezed almost fifteen times
last evening.
Dangling Modifiers
 A dangling modifier has no word in the sentence
to describe. They are usually at the beginning
of a sentence

Sitting in the dentist’s chair, the sound of the drill
awakened Larry’s old fears.
 Method 1: Follow the dangling modifier with the
word or words it is meant to describe.

Sitting in the dentist’s chair, Larry found that the
sound of the drill awakened his old fears.
Correct this!
 Depressed and disappointed, running away
seemed the only thing for me to do.
Method #2
 Add a subject and a verb to the opening word
group.
 Dangling: Sitting in the dentist’s chair, the
sound of the drill awakened Larry’s old fears.
 Corrected: As Larry was sitting in the dentist’s
chair, the sound of the drill awakened his old
fears.
Conventions ML #20Word Choice

1.
Not all writing problem involve grammar. A sentence
may be grammatically correct, yet fail to communicate
well because of the words the writer has chosen.
There are three common word choice problems:
Slang



Slang: My sister is something else.
Revised: My sister is a very special person.
Slang expressions are lively and fun to use, but they
should be avoided in formal writing. (Except if you’re
using it in dialogue in a narrative.) Slang changes from
year to year too, so what might be cool one year, might
be awesome the next, and off the chain another. Some
of your readers might not understand it.
Cliché
Clichés – is an expression that was once unique and
colorful, but because it’s been around so long, it has
become dull and boring.
Avoid like the plague, better late than never, bored to
tears, easy as pie, in the nick of time, in this day and
age, last but not least, light as a feather, make ends
meet, pie in the sky, pretty as a picture, sad but true,
etc.
Find a new and interesting way to say these things and
that will really make your writing lively and colorfu!
2.
Wordiness
 Some writers think that using more words than
necessary makes their writing sound smart or
important. Actually, wordiness just annoys and
confuses your reader.
 Wordy: Though huge in size and blood red in
color, the cartoon monster had a sweet
personality.
 Revised: Though huge and blood red, the
cartoon monster had a sweet personality.
Also, avoid puffed-up phrases that can be
expressed in a word or two instead.
 A large number of
 Many
 At an earlier point in time
 Before
 At this point in time
 Now
 Be in possession of
 Have
 Due to the fact that
 Because
 During the time that
 While
 Each and every day
 Daily
 In order to
 to