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Retrieving & Forgetting Memories Short-Term Memory • Maintenance rehearsal: shallow processing • 20 seconds • “Rule of 7” (7 +/- 2) • Try to remember as many of the following letters as possible. FABCPBSNBCCNNMTV F ABC PBS NBC CNN MTV Chunking: the process of grouping items to make them easier to remember. Social Security Numbers Phone Numbers Put Your Pens/Pencils Down and Listen to the List of Words I Read. 5 Dream Night Toss Turn Sound Rest Snore Night Slumber Artichoke Comfort Tired Clock Fatigue Silence Dark Quilt Night Bed Sleep 10 15 20 Short-Term Memory • The Serial Position Effect: we are better able to recall information presented at the beginning and end of a list. • Primacy Effect • Recency Effect Long Term Memory (LTM) Storing Implicit & Explicit Memories Explicit Memory refers to facts and experiences that one can consciously know and declare. Implicit memory involves learning an action while the individual does not know or declare what she knows. Retrieval Cues Memories are held in storage by a web of associations. These associations are like anchors that help retrieve memory. water smell fire smoke Fire Truck heat truck red hose Priming To retrieve a specific memory from the web of associations, you must first activate one of the strands that leads to it. This process is called priming. Déja Vu Déja Vu means “I've experienced this before.” Cues from the current situation may unconsciously trigger retrieval of an earlier similar experience. © The New Yorker Collection, 1990. Leo Cullum from cartoonbank.com. All Rights Reserved Telephone Game (Psych Style) Memory Construction • Leveling • Sharpening • Assimilation: Changing details to better fit the subject’s own background, knowledge, or schemas. • Semantically encoded: because many parts of the story are encoded this way (basic gist rather than exact words), they are likely to be altered in line with the teller’s schemas. • Expectations, Experiences, Biases, Stereotypes Elizabeth Loftus and John Palmer: Memory Experiment and Hypothesis • Hypothesis: People will remember a car accident differently if given different language cues (words) about the accident Loftus and Palmer: Methodology • Students watched a film of two cars colliding • Collision was moderate with no broken glass • Different students asked different questions: hit, smashed, collided, bumped, contacted Loftus and Palmer: Results VERB MEAN ESTIMATE OF SPEED (MPH) Smashed 40.8 Collided 39.3 Bumped 38.1 Hit 34.0 Contacted 31.8 • People reported the fastest speeds if the researchers had used the word “smashed” in the question • From fastest to slowest reported speeds: smashed, collided, bumped, hit, and contacted groups Loftus and Palmer: Results • One week later, subjects were asked if they had seen broken glass • 32% of subjects asked the “smashed” question said yes; 14% of subjects asked the “hit” question said yes Loftus and Palmer: Results and Implications • People remember things differently depending on the language used to describe an event (e.g., “smashed” versus “hit”) • Misinformation effect – memories can become skewed when presented with misinformation (Eye Witness Test) 60 Minutes- Eyewitness Factors that influence reconstructive memory • Leading questions“Did you see a broken headlight?” “Did you see the broken headlight?” • Lawyer-speak- “Is it not true that . . .” • Schema-Mental framework of an object or event based on previous experience. Cue Dependence • Available cues affect which memories are retrievable – Emotional • Mood congruence • Adult memory is emotionally laden • Current cues determine what is retrievable • Using our memories shapes them over time – Social/contextual • State dependence • Context effects (Godden & Baddeley, 1975) Forgetting An inability to retrieve information due to poor encoding, storage, or retrieval. Which penny is real? Encoding Failure We cannot remember what we do not encode. Storage Decay Poor durability of stored memories leads to their decay. Ebbinghaus showed this with his forgetting curve. Unfamiliar & Uninteresting = more forgetting Forgot 80% after 1 week Retaining Spanish Bahrick (1984) showed a similar pattern of forgetting and retaining over 50 years. Andrew Holbrooke/ Corbis Retrieval Failure Although the information is retained in the memory store, it cannot be accessed. Tip-of-the-tongue (TOT) is a retrieval failure phenomenon. Given a cue (What makes blood cells red?) the subject says the word begins with an H (hemoglobin). Mnemonics – video clip Volunteers Anyone? Who wants To Stroop? Interference Learning some new information may disrupt retrieval of other information. Retroactive Interference Sleep prevents retroactive interference. Therefore, it leads to better recall. Motivated Forgetting Motivated Forgetting: People unknowingly revise their memories. Culver Pictures Repression: A defense mechanism that banishes anxiety-arousing thoughts, feelings, and memories from consciousness. Sigmund Freud Why do we forget? Forgetting can occur at any memory stage. We filter, alter, or lose much information during these stages. Hippocampus • Hippocampus – a neural center in the limbic system that processes explicit memories. • Amnesia – loss of memory Cerebellum Cerebellum – a neural center in the hindbrain that processes implicit memories. “muscle memory” Storing Implicit & Explicit Memories Explicit Memory refers to facts and experiences that one can consciously know and declare. Implicit memory involves learning an action while the individual does not know or declare what she knows.