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PSY 323: Cognition
Chapter 7:
Long-Term Memory: Encoding, Retrieval, &
Consolidation
Encoding
• Mental Rehearsal
▫ Maintenance Rehearsal
 Repeating things over and over
 Helps maintain information in STM/WM
▫ Elaborate Rehearsal
 Involves thinking about how new material relates to
information already stored in memory
 Effective at transferring information into LTM
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Levels of Processing (LOP)
• Craik & Lockhart (1972); Nairne (2010)
▫ Quality of memory depends on how information is
encoded
See demo on next two slides 
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For about 5 seconds per item, count
# of vowels in each word
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Chair
Mathematics
Elephant
Lamp
Car
Elevator
Thoughtful
Cactus
Count backward from 100 by 3’s; when you get to 76, write down
as many words as you can remember. Do that now.
Replication of Craik & Lockhart (1972)
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For about 5 seconds per item, visualize how
useful the item would be on a deserted island
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Umbrella
Exercise
Forgiveness
Rock
Hamburger
Sunlight
Coffee
Bottle
Count backward from 99 by 3’s; when you get to 75, write down
as many words as you can remember. Do that now.
Replication of Craik & Lockhart (1972); Nairne (2010)
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How did you do?
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Chair
Mathematics
Elephant
Lamp
Car
Elevator
Cactus
Thoughtful
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Umbrella
Exercise
Forgiveness
Rock
Hamburger
Sunlight
Bottle
Coffee
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What Levels of Processing tells us…
Memory for words is better when they are
linked to other knowledge
• Depth of Processing seems to matter
Shallow Processing
• Little attention to meaning
Deep Processing
• Close attention to meaning
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Experimental Evidence for LOP
Craik & Tulving (1975)
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Types of questions
Procedure
• Shallow:
▫ Is the word printed in capital letters?
• Deeper:
▫ Does the word rhyme with train?
• Deepest:
▫ Does the word fit into the sentence “He saw a
____ on the street?”
Craik & Tulving (1975)
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Levels of Processing
Craik & Tulving (1975)
Shallow
Deeper
Deepest
Deep processing takes longer but results in better memory.
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Aiding Encoding:
Forming additional connections
Complex or descriptive sentences aid
memory
• Chicken
▫ She cooked the chicken.
▫ The great bird swooped down and carried off the
struggling chicken.
• Which sentence would help you to remember the
word “chicken?”
Forming Visual Images
Bower & Winzenz (1970)
Procedure
• Paired associate learning paradigm
• 15 noun pairs; 5 seconds to remember
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Group 1: Silently repeat
Group 2: Mental image
• After delay, participants are given first word and asked to
remember the second
Results
• Group 2 did better; recalled twice as many words
See next slide 
Forming Visual Images
Results 
Interpretation
• Illustrates the advantage of visual coding
Bower & Winzenz (1970)
Linking Words to Yourself
Rogers et al. (1977)
Experiment 1
Procedure
• Participants read a question for three seconds and then saw a
word
• They answered yes if the word was in the question and no if
it wasn’t
Four types of questions:
• Physical characteristics of word
• Rhyming
• Meaning
• Self-reference
Linking Words to Yourself
Exp. 1: Results 
Rogers et al. (1977)
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Linking Words to Yourself
Experiment 2
Results 
Rogers et al. (1977)
Why are we more likely to remember
words they connect to ourselves?
Rogers et al. (1977)
Experiments 1 & 2
Interpretation
• One possible explanation is that the words become
linked to something the participants in these
experiments know well—themselves
The Generation Effect
Slameka & Graf (1978)
Procedure
• Paired associate learning paradigm
• Participants studied related word pairs
▫ Group 1: Read group
▫ Group 2: Generate group
• After delay, participants asked to recall entire word pair
Results
• Group 2 did significantly better
Interpretation
• Generating material yourself, rather than passively receiving
it, enhances learning and retention
How do we recall or retrieve information that is
not presently in conscious awareness?
• Retrieval Cues
▫ Stimuli that help us to get information stored in
LTM
▫ Seems to help the best if it taps into information
that was encoded at the time of learning
Retrieval Practice
Testing Effect
Roediger & Karpicke (2009)
Procedure
• Participants read prose passages for 7 minutes
followed by a 2-minute break during which they
solved math problems.
▫ Group 1: Testing group
▫ Group 2: Rereading group
• After various delays, all participants were given
recall test
Retrieval Practice
Testing Effect
Results 
Interpretation
• Retrieval can get better with practice
Roediger & Karpicke (2009)
Cued Recall
High school students listened to lists of 12, 24, and 48 words
Procedure & Results of Tulving & Pearlstone (1966)
Matching Conditions of Encoding & Retrieval
Encoding Specificity Principle
Godden & Baddeley (1975)
Procedure
• Participants randomly assigned to 4 groups:
Listen/Recall
Group 1:
Group 2:
Group 3:
Group 4:
water/land
land/water
water/water
land/land
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Matching Conditions of Encoding & Retrieval
Procedure & Results of Gooden & Baddeley (1975)
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Matching Conditions of Encoding & Retrieval
Procedure & Results of Grant et al. (1998)
Matching Conditions of Encoding & Retrieval
Interpretation of both studies:
• The effect of context is significant
• Recall is better if the retrieval context is similar to
the encoding context
Gooden & Baddeley (1975); Grant et al. (1998)
State Dependent Memory
Moods Cue
• Memory is better when a person’s internal state
during retrieval matches their internal state
during encoding
• Information learned in a particular emotional
state (e.g., depressed, happy, somber) may be
more easily recalled when in that same state of
mind
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State Dependent Memory
Procedure & Results of Eich & Metcalfe (1989)
State Dependent Memory
Interpretation
The effect of context is significant
• Recall is better if the retrieval context is similar to
the encoding context
Transfer Appropriate Processing
This phenomenon shows that memory
performance is enhanced if the type of task at
encoding matches the type of task at retrieval
Morris et al. (1977)
Procedure
• The encoding part of the experiment had two
conditions:
▫ The meaning condition
▫ The rhyming condition
• Participants in both conditions heard a sentence
with one word replaced by the word “blank”; 2
seconds later, they heard a target word
Transfer Appropriate Processing
Procedure
Memory Group
• Answer “yes” or “no” based on the meaning of the
sentence created by replacing “blank” with the
target word
Rhyme Group
• Answer “yes” or “no” based on the rhyme created by
replacing “blank” with the target word
Morris et al. (1977)
Transfer Appropriate Processing
Results 
Interpretation
• This result would not be predicted by levels ofprocessing theory, but is predicted by the principle that
better retrieval occurs if the encoding and retrieval tasks
are matched
Morris et al. (1977)
The Process of Consolidation…
Transforming new memories from fragile
state (easily lost) to a permanent state (not
easily lost)
• Standard Model of Consolidation
• Multiple Trace Hypothesis
Standard Model of Consolidation
This model posits that the hippocampus
important at first; not so much later
Reactivation
• A process in which the hippocampus replays the
neural activity associated with memory
• This activity results in the formation of connections
between the cortical areas
• This reactivation process occurs during sleep or
during periods of relaxed wakefulness, and can
also be enhanced by conscious rehearsing of a
memory
Standard Model of Consolidation
Reactivation
• Eventually, the cortical connections become strong
enough so that the different sites in the cortex
become directly linked, and the hippocampus is no
longer necessary
• Thus, according to the standard model of
consolidation, the hippocampus is strongly active
when memories are first formed but become less
active as memories are consolidated, until
eventually only cortical activity is necessary to
retrieve remote memories
Standard Model of Consolidation
Evidence for this model comes from
occurrences of graded amnesia
• Retrograde amnesia is most severe for events that
occurred just before an injury
Retrograde amnesia
• Loss of memory for events that have happened prior to
trauma or disease
Standard Model of Consolidation
Gradual decrease in amnesia for past events
supports idea that connections between
hippocampus the cortical are formed and
strengthened as time passes after an event
and then vanish
• Hippocampus is strongly active when memories
are initially formed and recalled
• Then becomes less involved as memories are
consolidated
• Eventually, the connections between the cortical areas
themselves are enough to access remote memories
The Process of Consolidation…
Multiple Trace Hypothesis (MTH)
• Hippocampus’ influence is important during latter
stages of memory formation as well
Gilboa et al. (2004)
• Participants shown photographs of themselves
engaging in various activities at times ranging from
very recently to when they were 5 years old
• The results of this experiment showed that the
hippocampus was activated during retrieval of both
recent and remote memories
Reconsolidation
• This theory posits that when a memory is
retrieved, it returns to the STM state
• If undisturbed it will undergo consolidation
again back into LTM
• However, it may not go undisturbed and is
susceptible to alteration at this time
• Since reactivated memory is in a labile state, it
can be blocked (just as in consolidation)
Credits
 Some of the slides in this presentation prepared with the assistance of
the following web sites:
 www.radford.edu/dhall/Matlin%20powerpoints/ch05%20edited
.ppt
 archlab.gmu.edu/people/jthompsz/6-LongTermMemory_2.ppt