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MEMORY
You think it’s
good? Well,
you’re wrong.
WHICH IS THE REAL PENNY?
ENCODING
DEF: forming a
memory code
Requires attention:
focusing awareness
on a narrowed range
of stimuli or events
Attention is
selective; acts as a
filter
LEVELS OF PROCESSING
 Craik and Lockhart
(1972) propose
incoming info can be
processed at different
levels
 3 levels for verbal
info.:
 1: Structural
encoding: shallow
processing that
emphasizes the
physical structure of
the stimulus
LEVELS OF PROCESSING CONTINUED
 Phonemic encoding:
emphasizes what a
word sounds like
 Semantic encoding:
emphasizes meaning of
verbal input; thinking
about the objects and
actions the word
represents
 Levels of Processing
Theory: deeper levels of
processing result in
longer lasting memory
codes
ENRICHING ENCODING
Elaboration: linking
a stimulus to other
info at the time of
encoding
Helps enhance
semantic encoding
Involves thinking of
examples to
illustrate the idea
VISUAL IMAGERY
 Creating visual
images to represent
words to be
remembered
 Allan Paivio: easier to
form images for
concrete words
 Dual-coding theory:
holds that memory is
enhanced by forming
semantic and visual
codes, since either
can lead to recall
SELF-REFERENT ENCODING
DEF: deciding how or
whether info is
personally relevant
It is easier to
remember
something if it is
meaningful to you
STORAGE: MAINTAINING
INFORMATION IN
MEMORY
Storage is
maintaining
info in
memory over
time
SENSORY MEMORY
 DEF: preserves info in
its original sensory
form for a brief time,
usually only a fraction
of a second
 Gives additional time
to recognize stimulus
 Visual and auditory
memory trace decays
after ¼ of a second
SHORT-TERM MEMORY
STM is a limitedcapacity store that
can maintain
unrehearsed info for
up to 20 seconds
Rehearsal: process
of repetitively
verbalizing or
thinking about the
info
DURABILIT Y OF STORAGE
Ability to recall
decays considerably
after only 15
seconds
This is due to timerelated decay and
interference from
competing stimuli
CAPACIT Y OF STORAGE
 1956: George Miller
publishes “Magical
Number 7” paper
 Claims you can store
7 items (+ or – 2) in
STM
 You can increase
capacity by Chunking:
grouping familiar
stimuli and storing as
a single unit
STM AS “WORKING MEMORY”
 Alan Baddeley: “Working
memory” consists of 3
parts:
 1: Phonological rehearsal
loop (ex: reciting a phone
#)—only 2 seconds of info
 2: Visuospatial
sketchpad: allows to
temporarily hold and
manipulate visual images
 3: Executive control
system: handles info as
you engage in reasoning
and decision making
LONG-TERM MEMORY
DEF: an unlimited
(virtually) capacity
store that can hold
info over lengthy
periods of time
LONG-TERM MEMORY PERMANENT?
Flash-bulb
memories: unusually
vivid and detailed
recollections of
momentous events
Hypnosis induced
memories
ESB triggering longlost memories
STM AND LTM SEPARATE
Dominant thought
today is that STM is
a tiny and constantly
changing portion of
LTM
HOW IS KNOWLEDGE
REPRESENTED AND
ORGANIZED IN
MEMORY?
CLUSTERING AND CONCEPTUAL
HIERARCHIES
Clustering: tendency
to remember similar
or related items in a
group
Conceptual
hierarchy: multilevel
classification system
based on common
properties among
items
SCHEMAS
Schema: an
organized cluster of
knowledge about a
particular object or
event abstracted
from previous
experience with the
object or event
SCRIPTS
Script: organizes
what people know
about common
activities
A kind of schema
SEMANTIC NETWORKS
DEF: consists of
nodes representing
concepts, joined
together by
pathways that link
related concepts
Spreading
activation: naturally
thinking of related
words
CONNECTIONIST NETWORKS AND
PARALLEL DISTRIBUTED PROCESSING
(PDP)
 PDP models assume that cognitive processes depend on
patterns of activation in highly interconnected computational
networks that resemble neural networks
 PDP models assert that specific memories correspond to
particular patterns of activation in these networks
RETRIEVAL: GETTING
INFORMATION OUT OF
MEMORY
TIP-OF-THE-TONGUE PHENOMENON
DEF: temporary
inability to
remember
something you know,
accompanied by the
feeling that it’s just
out of reach
Similar memories
are interfering
REINSTATING THE CONTEXT OF AN EVENT
Context cues
facilitate the
retrieval of info.
Remembering the
origin of the thought
RECONSTRUCTING MEMORIES AND
MISINFORMATION EFFECT
Distortions in recall
occur b/c subjects
reconstruct a story
to fit w/ their
established schemas
Theories:
overwriting,
interference, and…
SOURCE-MONITORING
 Def: process of making
attributions about the
original memories
 Source-monitoring
error: when a memory
derived from a source
is misattributed to
another source
 Reality monitoring:
process of deciding
whether memories are
based on external or
internal sources