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CHAPTER 7 & 8: MEMORY, THINKING, LANGUAGE, INTELLIGENCE AP Psychology The Nature of Memory Memory Internal record or representation of some prior event or experience Memories are NOT exact recordings of events Constructive Process Organizing and shaping of information during processing, storage, and retrieval of memories Models of Memory Information-Processing Model Information that we encounter goes through 3 basic operations Encoding: Processing information into the memory system Storage: Retaining information over time Retrieval: Recovering information from memory storage Models of Memory Parallel Distributed Processing Model Memory results from weblike connections among interacting processing units operating simultaneously, rather than sequentially What does this mean?? When you encounter information, you don’t analyze it one piece at a time, you take in several features at the same time! Ex: Seeing a shark in the ocean Models of Memory Traditional Three-Stage Memory Model Memory requires three difference stages to hold and process information for various lengths of time Sensory memory, short-term memory, long-term memory Three-Stage Memory Model Sensory Memory First memory stage that holds sensory information; relatively large capacity, but duration is only a few seconds (just long enough to locate relevant bits of data to transfer to longer memory) Iconic Memory: visual information Lasts Echoic Lasts about half a second Memory: auditory information up to 4 seconds Three-Stage Memory Model Short-Term Memory (STM) Second memory stage that temporarily stores sensory information and decides whether to send it on to Long-Term Memory (LTM) Capacity is limited to 5 to 9 items, and duration is about 30 seconds How to make it last longer? Hold more? Maintenance Rehearsal: Repeating information over and over to maintain it in STM Chunking: Grouping separate pieces of information into a single unit (or chunk) Three-Stage Memory Model Long-Term Memory Third stage of memory that stores information for long periods of time Its capacity is virtually limitless and its duration is relatively permanent 2 Types of Long-Term Memory Long-Term Memory Explicit (Declarative) Memory Type of long-term memory that consciously stores facts, information, and personal life experiences Ex: Social security number, state capitals, etc. Semantic Memory: Stores general knowledge Episodic Memory: Stores memories of personally experienced events What do we encode? Semantic Encoding Meaning of words Acoustic Encoding Sound of words Visual Encoding How words look Long-Term Memory Implicit (Nondeclarative) Memory Type of long-term memory consisting of unconscious procedural skills and simple classically conditioned responses Memory without awareness! Ex: Tying shoes, riding a bike, brushing teeth, fear reaction to snakes How to Improve Memory Encoding Levels of Processing: Degree or depth of mental processing occurring when material is initially encountered Deeper levels of processing = more remembering! Elaborative Rehearsal: Linking new information to previously stored material Not just repeating, but trying to make sense of it all Retrieval Serial Position Effect Information at the beginning and end of a list is remembered better than material in the middle Primacy Effect: Info at beginning remembered Recency Effect: Info at end remembered Retrieval Retrieval Cue Clue or prompt that helps stimulate retrieval of a stored piece of information from LTM Recall Retrieving a memory using a general cue (vague, not giving much information) Ex: Fill-in-the-blank quiz Recognition Retrieving a memory using a specific cue Ex: Multiple-choice quiz Retrieval Priming Activation, often unconsciously, of particular associations in memory Ex: Smell the cologne of an ex-boyfriend, start thinking about a movie you saw with him Ex: Deja-Vu? Encoding Specificity Principle Retrieval of info is improved when current conditions are similar to conditions when it was encoded Context-dependent, mood congruence, statedependent Forgetting Hermann Ebbinghaus – 1885 Memorized nonsense 3 letter words (SIB, RAL…) Knew it perfectly, then measured how many were remembered an hour later, a day later, and a week later Ebbinghaus Forgetting Curve Forgetting is rapid at first! Then slows down over time. Relearning takes less time than initial learning Forgetting Curve for Spanish Why do we forget? Decay Theory: connections between neurons deteriorate over time if not used Interference Theory: two memories are competing Retroactive Interference: New information interferes with remembering old Proactive Interference: Old information interferes with remembering new Why do we forget? Motivated Forgetting Theory: according to Freud, we forget unpleasant or anxiety producing info either consciously or unconsciously Encoding Failure Theory: info gets to STM, but is not encoded for storage in LTM (not important enough, not rehearsed) Retrieval Failure Theory: memories are momentarily inaccessible (tip-of-thetongue phenomenon) Key Factors in Forgetting Misinformation Effect Distortion of a memory by misleading post-event information False memories based on cues (“How fast was the car going when it smashed into the other?”) Source Amnesia Forgetting the true source of a memory “I saw it on CNN” when really heard it from a friend Key Factors in Forgetting Sleeper Effect Info from an unreliable source, which was initially discounted, later gains credibility because the source is forgotten Information Overload Massed Practice: time spent learning is grouped into long, unbroken intervals (CRAMMING) Distributed Practice: practice/study sessions are interspersed with rest periods Biological Basis of Memory Learning and remembering modifies the brain’s neural networks Long-Term Potentiation Prolonged strengthening of neural firing Repeated stimulation causes dendrites to grow, ability of neurons to accept or release NTs can be changed Biological Basis of Memory Flashbulb Memories Vivid images of circumstances associated with surprising or strongly emotional events Ex: 9/11, moonwalk, assassinations Strong hormones emitted, repeated images in mind STILL might not be 100% accurate! Biological Causes of Memory Loss Traumatic Brain Injury (TBI) Skull has a collision with another object Ex: Car accidents, falls, gunshots, etc. Amnesia Loss of memory as a result of brain injury/trauma Retrograde Amnesia: Loss of memory for events that occurred before the injury Anterograde Amnesia: Inability to form new memories after a brain injury Biological Causes of Memory Loss Alzheimer’s Disease Progressive mental deterioration characterized by severe memory loss Occurs most commonly later in life Biological Causes of Memory Loss Karl Lashley – 1950 Wanted to know where memories are located Studied rats who had learned a maze Lesioned a part of the brain, watched in maze What he found? No localized memories! Rats could still go through the maze even with parts of the brain removed
