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WHS AP Psychology
Unit 2: Memory (Cognition)
Essential Task 2-2:
Outline principles that help improve memory functioning at each stage:
encoding - attention, chunking, serial positioning effect, deep versus shallow
processing, and rote rehearsal
storage - decay theory, elaborative rehearsal, spacing effect, method of loci, and link
method
retrieval - retroactive interference, proactive interference
Information Processing
Model
1. Encoding
gone
Long Term
Memory
2. Storage
3. Retrieval
All the rest
We are
here
External
Stimuli
Sensory
Registers
Retrieval
Short Term
Memory
Essential
Task
2-2:
Outline
• Improving Encoding
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Improving storage
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•
attention
chunking
serial positioning effect
Schemata and Hierarchy
deep versus shallow processing
decay theory
spacing effect
Rote rehearsal vs. elaborative rehearsal
Mnemonics like method of loci and link method
Retrieval
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Retrieval Cues and Priming
Situational factors
State dependent
Allow for Parallel Processing
Overcoming retroactive interference
Overcoming proactive interference
Improving Encoding
Outline
Attention? Pay Attention
• You can consciously decide to pay
attention to something.
• If you don’t pay attention it won’t
enter your STM and never get to your
IPM.
Outline
Chunking
• The grouping of information into
meaningful units for easier handling by
short term memory.
• M-S-N-N-A-S-A-C-I-A-C-O-M
Or
• MSN NASA CIA COM
Outline
Conduct Inclusive
Memory Activity Now
Serial Position Effect
Outline
• People tend to recall the first items
(primacy effect) and last items (recency
effect) in a list
• Demonstrates how short- and longterm memory work together
• Primacy effect reflects long-term
memory
• Recency effect reflects short-term
memory
Serial Position Effect
Outline
Schemata
• A schema is a set of beliefs or expectations about
something based on past experience
• Incoming information is fit with existing schemata
– (concept maps)
• Schemata can also influence the amount of
attention paid to a given event
• Reconstruction
– Memories can be altered with each retrieval
– We do this to keep the schemata of our self and our
environment
Outline
Hierarchy
Complex information broken down into
broad concepts and further subdivided
into categories and subcategories.
Encoding Summarized in a
Hierarchy
Conduct Processing Activity Now
Outline
Deep Versus Shallow Processing
Deep Processing analyzes meaning
Shallow processing does not
Outline
Improving Storage
Outline
Decay Theory
• The decay theory argues that the
passage of time causes forgetting.
• The longer information is not accessed,
increases the chances of forgetting it.
Outline
Spacing Effect
•Distributing rehearsal (spacing effect)
is better than practicing all at once. You
can memorize a poem a lot easier if you
break it down into 5 parts over 5 days
instead of all at once.
Maintaining Long-Term Memory
• Rote rehearsal
– Repetition can result in long-term
memory
– Only effective if there is intent to learn
material
– Example: What does a penny look like?
Outline
Maintaining Long-Term Memory
• Elaborative rehearsal
– Process of relating new information to
information already stored in memory
– Meaning is assigned to new information
and then linked to as much existing
knowledge as possible
– Hence Psych Immersions
Outline
Link Method
• First imagine a silly, memorable image that represents
the type of list you want to remember. Also include in this
image the first item on the list (see below for example).
This image is your header for the list.
• Think of another silly, memorable image that links the first
item on the list to the second item and so on.
Outline
Method of Loci
• In this technique the subject memorizes the layout of some building,
or the arrangement of shops on a street, or any geographical entity
which is composed of a number of discrete loci. When desiring to
remember a set of items the subject literally 'walks' through these loci
and commits an item to each one by forming an image between the
item and any distinguishing feature of that locus.
Outline
Improving Retrieval
Outline
Retrieval Cues
Memories are held in storage by a web of
associations. These associations are like anchors
that help retrieve memory.
water
smell
fire
smoke
Fire Truck
heat
truck
red
hose
Priming
To retrieve a specific memory from the web of
associations, you must first activate one of the
strands that leads to it. This process is called
priming.
Where and when matters
• Situational factors
– Recall of information is better if environment is
the same as when information was learned
• State-dependent memory
– Recall of information is better if person is in the
same physiological state as when information
was learned
Parallel Processing
• Tip of the Tongue Phenomenon is when you
can almost recall something, but can’t quite
get it.
• If you leave it your brain will continue to
work on this problem eventually surfacing
with the answer.
• Thus you later yell out the name of the
actor and everyone looks at you like you are
odd.
Interference
• Retroactive interference
– Occurs when new information interferes
with information already in memory
– Retro means old
– In this term the old information is being
tested
– Thus the new information is doing the
interference.
Outline
Try remembering the following
number
• 8132163
• Ok that was easy because nothing
interfered with you.
Outline
Now let’s try some interference
• 4982631
• First, consistent with cognitive dissonance theories,
we are able to induce optimism or pessimism with the
initial (random) wage assignment. With respect to the
first-stage task, this implies that we can successfully
manipulate one’s ability-beliefs in the lab. Secondly,
subjects who received this low piece-rate in stage one
were willing to accept significantly lower offers in a
second-stage ultimatum game. This finding is striking,
demonstrating the presence of both belief
manipulation and spillovers of those beliefs into
behavioral outcomes in an unrelated and distinct
experimental environment.
Outline
Try remembering the following
number
• 5614982
• 92589386
Outline
Retro-active Interference
• The last two were examples of retroactive interference
• In each one, it was the OLD (retro)
information that was being tested.
• The last trial was the hardest because
it overloaded your modality.
• What type of music should you listen
to when you write an essay?
Outline
Retroactive Interference
Sleep helps prevent retroactive interference.
Therefore, it leads to better recall.
Outline
Interference
• Proactive interference
– This is when new information is being tested.
– The old information already in your LTM interferes.
– It is tough to teach an experienced show dog new
tricks.
– Psychologists have found that recall of later items
can be improved by making them distinctive from
early items. For example, people being fed groups
of numbers to remember did much better when
they were suddenly fed a group of words instead.
This is called release from proactive interference
Outline
I need a volunteer that knows
their colors.
• Don’t read the words, just say the
colors they’re printed in and as fast
as you can
• This is called the stroop effect
Outline
Red
Yellow
Green
Blue
Red
Blue
Yellow
Green
Blue
Red
Interference
• When you look at the words you
see both its color and meaning.
• When they are in conflict you must
make a choice
• Experience has taught you that word
meaning is more important than color
so you retrieve that information.
• You are not always in complete
control of what you pay attention to.
Outline
Schemata
• A schema is a set of beliefs or expectations about
something based on past experience
• Incoming information is fit with existing schemata
• Schemata can also influence the amount of
attention paid to a given event
• Reconstruction
– Memories can be altered with each retrieval
– We do this to keep the schemata of our self and our
environment
Outline