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PSYCHOLOGY
AN EXPLORATION
Second Edition
CHAPTER
5
memory
Psychology: An Exploration, Second Edition
Saundra K. Ciccarelli • J. Noland White
why study memory?
Without memory, how would we be able to learn
anything? The ability to learn is the key to our very
survival, and we cannot learn unless we can remember
what happened the last time a particular situation
arose. Why study forgetting? If we can learn about the
ways in which we forget information, we can apply that
learning so that forgetting occurs less frequently.
Psychology: An Exploration, Second Edition
Saundra K. Ciccarelli • J. Noland White
Learning Objectives
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5.11
5.12
5.13
Memory and the three processes of memory
Sensory memory
Short-term or working memory
Long-term memory
Different types of long-term memory
Kinds of cues that help people remember
How recall and recognition differ
How long-term memories are formed
False memory syndrome
Different causes of forgetting
How and where memories are formed in the brain
How does amnesia occur?
What are the facts about Alzheimer’s disease
Psychology: An Exploration, Second Edition
Saundra K. Ciccarelli • J. Noland White
Memory and Its Processes
LO 5.1 Memory and the three processes of memory
• Memory
– Active system that receives information
from the senses
– Organizes and stores it
– Retrieves information from storage
Psychology: An Exploration, Second Edition
Saundra K. Ciccarelli • J. Noland White
Memory and Its Processes
LO 5.1 Memory and the three processes of memory
• Processes of Memory:
– Encoding
 Converts sensory information to a form
usable in the brain’s storage systems
– Storage
 Holding onto information for some period
of time
– Retrieval
 Recalling stored information in a form
that can be used
Psychology: An Exploration, Second Edition
Saundra K. Ciccarelli • J. Noland White
Models of Memory
LO 5.1 Memory and the three processes of memory
• Information-processing model
– Information is processed across three
stages
– Encoding, storage and retrieval
Psychology: An Exploration, Second Edition
Saundra K. Ciccarelli • J. Noland White
Models of Memory
LO 5.1 Memory and the three processes of memory
• Levels-of-processing model
– Information is “deeply processed”
– Processed according to meaning rather
than just sound or physical
characteristics of words
– How well item is remembered depends
on depth remembered
Psychology: An Exploration, Second Edition
Saundra K. Ciccarelli • J. Noland White
Models of Memory
LO 5.1 Memory and the three processes of memory
• Parallel distributed processing (PDP)
model
– Simultaneous processing, memories
stretched across brain
– Able to retrieve many aspects of a
memory at once
– Roots in artificial intelligence model
Psychology: An Exploration, Second Edition
Saundra K. Ciccarelli • J. Noland White
Figure 5.1 Three-Stage Process of Memory
Information enters through the sensory system, briefly registering in sensory memory. Selective attention filters
the information into short-term memory, where it is held while attention (rehearsal) continues. If the information
receives enough rehearsal (maintenance or elaborative), it will enter and be stored in long-term memory.
Psychology: An Exploration, Second Edition
Saundra K. Ciccarelli • J. Noland White
Sensory Memory
LO 5.2 Sensory memory
• First stage of memory
• Information enters nervous system
through sensory systems
– Encodes information into neural
messages
Psychology: An Exploration, Second Edition
Saundra K. Ciccarelli • J. Noland White
Sensory Memory
LO 5.2 Sensory memory
• Two types of sensory memory studied:
– Iconic
 Visual sensory memory
– Echoic
 Auditory sensory memory
Psychology: An Exploration, Second Edition
Saundra K. Ciccarelli • J. Noland White
Iconic Memory
LO 5.2 Sensory memory
• Visual sensory memory
• Lasts only a fraction of a second
• Helps visual system view surroundings
continuously
– Long enough for brain stem to evaluate
importance
Psychology: An Exploration, Second Edition
Saundra K. Ciccarelli • J. Noland White
Iconic Memory
LO 5.2 Sensory memory
• Partial report method (Sperling 1960)
– Revealed iconic memory captures
information all at once
 Masking
– Information is pushed out of iconic
memory quickly
– Replaced by new information
 Eidetic imagery
– Ability to access a visual memory for 30
seconds or more
Psychology: An Exploration, Second Edition
Saundra K. Ciccarelli • J. Noland White
Figure 5.1 Three-Stage Process of Memory
Information enters through the sensory system, briefly registering in sensory memory. Selective attention filters
the information into short-term memory, where it is held while attention (rehearsal) continues. If the information
receives enough rehearsal (maintenance or elaborative), it will enter and be stored in long-term memory.
Psychology: An Exploration, Second Edition
Saundra K. Ciccarelli • J. Noland White
Figure 5.2 Iconic Memory Test
Sample grid of letters for Sperling’s test of iconic memory. To determine if the entire grid existed in iconic
memory, Sperling sounded a tone associated with each row after the grid’s presentation. Participants were able
to recall the letters in the row for which they heard the tone. The graph shows the decrease in the number of
letters recalled as the delay in presenting the tone increased.
Psychology: An Exploration, Second Edition
Saundra K. Ciccarelli • J. Noland White
Echoic Memory
LO 5.2 Sensory memory
• Brief memory of something just heard
• Allows memory to remain long enough
for meaningful conversation
– Capacity
 Limited to what can be heard at any one
moment
 Smaller than capacity of iconic
memory
Psychology: An Exploration, Second Edition
Saundra K. Ciccarelli • J. Noland White
Echoic Memory
LO 5.2 Sensory memory
• Allows memory to remain long enough
for meaningful conversation
– Duration
 Lasts longer than iconic
 2 to 4 seconds
Psychology: An Exploration, Second Edition
Saundra K. Ciccarelli • J. Noland White
Once these piano strings have been attached to the tuning pins, the piano can be tuned. Tuning a piano requires
the use of echoic sensory memory. What other occupations might find a good echoic memory to be an asset?
Psychology: An Exploration, Second Edition
Saundra K. Ciccarelli • J. Noland White
Short-Term Memory
LO 5.3 Short-term or working memory
• Memory system in which information is
held for brief periods of time while
being used
– Selective attention
 Ability to attend to one stimulus apart
from total sensory input
Psychology: An Exploration, Second Edition
Saundra K. Ciccarelli • J. Noland White
Short-Term Memory
LO 5.3 Short-term or working memory
• Memory system in which information is
held for brief periods of time while
being used
– Selective attention
 “Cocktail party effect”
– Able to hear own name
mentioned across a
noisy room
Psychology: An Exploration, Second Edition
Saundra K. Ciccarelli • J. Noland White
Short-Term Memory
LO 5.3 Short-term or working memory
• Memory system in which information is
held for brief periods of time while
being used
– Selective attention
 Two stage process
– Stimuli filtered based on
physical characteristics
– Processed based on importance
Psychology: An Exploration, Second Edition
Saundra K. Ciccarelli • J. Noland White
Each person at this gathering is involved in a conversation with others, with dozens of such conversations going
on at the same time all around. Yet if a person in another conversation says the name of one of the people in the
crowd, that person in the crowd will be able to selectively attend to his or her name. This is known as the
“cocktail party effect.”
Psychology: An Exploration, Second Edition
Saundra K. Ciccarelli • J. Noland White
Short-Term Memory
LO 5.3 Short-term or working memory
• Working Memory
– Not really short term memory but a
process
– Active system that processes
information in short-term memory
– Consists of three processes:
 Central “executive” - controls other
processes
 “Sketchpad” - visual
 “Recorder” - auditory
Psychology: An Exploration, Second Edition
Saundra K. Ciccarelli • J. Noland White
This woman must hold the phone number she is reading in short-term memory long enough to dial it on the
phone next to her.
Psychology: An Exploration, Second Edition
Saundra K. Ciccarelli • J. Noland White
Short-Term Memory
LO 5.3 Short-term or working memory
• Capacity of short term memory is
7+/−2 chunks of information
• Young adults can hold three to five
items without strategy to retain
information
Psychology: An Exploration, Second Edition
Saundra K. Ciccarelli • J. Noland White
Short-Term Memory
LO 5.3 Short-term or working memory
• Unfamiliar words, information result in
further reductions
– Digit-span test
 Series of numbers is read to subjects
 Subjects are asked to recall the numbers
in order
Psychology: An Exploration, Second Edition
Saundra K. Ciccarelli • J. Noland White
Figure 5.3 Digit-Span Test
Instructions for the digit-span test: Listen carefully as the instructor reads each string of numbers out loud. As
soon as each string is ended (the instructor may say “go”), write down the numbers in the exact order in which
they were given.
Psychology: An Exploration, Second Edition
Saundra K. Ciccarelli • J. Noland White
Short-Term Memory
LO 5.3 Short-term or working memory
• Unfamiliar words, information result in
further reductions
– Chunking
 Combining information into meaningful
units or chunks
 More information can be held in STM
Psychology: An Exploration, Second Edition
Saundra K. Ciccarelli • J. Noland White
Short-Term Memory
LO 5.3 Short-term or working memory
• Maintenance rehearsal
– information to be remembered is
repeated over and over mentally
– maintains it in short-term memory
 STMs tend to be encoded in auditory
form
Psychology: An Exploration, Second Edition
Saundra K. Ciccarelli • J. Noland White
Short-Term Memory
LO 5.3 Short-term or working memory
• Duration of STM
– 12 to 30 seconds without rehearsal
• STM is susceptible to interference
– e.g. if counting is interrupted, count is
lost
Psychology: An Exploration, Second Edition
Saundra K. Ciccarelli • J. Noland White
It is very important for this pharmacist to count out the number of pills in the prescription accurately. Short-term
memory allows her to remember the last number she counted, but if she is interrupted, she will have to start all
over again. Short-term memory is very susceptible to interference.
Psychology: An Exploration, Second Edition
Saundra K. Ciccarelli • J. Noland White
Long-Term Memory
LO 5.4 Long-term memory
• System of memory into which
information is placed to be kept
permanently
• Physical change in brain takes place
with LTM storage
• Elaborative rehearsal
– Information transferred from STM
to LTM by making it meaningful
– Deeper processing occurs with LTM
Psychology: An Exploration, Second Edition
Saundra K. Ciccarelli • J. Noland White
These students are rehearsing for a concert. They will use maintenance rehearsal (repeating the musical
passages over and over) until they can play their parts perfectly. The movements of their fingers upon the
strings of their instruments will be stored in long-term memory. How is this kind of long-term memory different
from something like the memorized lines of one’s part in a play?
Psychology: An Exploration, Second Edition
Saundra K. Ciccarelli • J. Noland White
Types of LTM
LO 5.5 Different types of long-term memory
• Procedural (nondeclarative) memory
– Includes memory for skills, procedures,
habits, and conditioned responses
– These memories are not conscious
 Implied to exist because they affect
conscious behavior
Psychology: An Exploration, Second Edition
Saundra K. Ciccarelli • J. Noland White
Types of LTM
LO 5.5 Different types of long-term memory
• Declarative memory
– Contains information that is conscious
and known
– Memory for facts
Psychology: An Exploration, Second Edition
Saundra K. Ciccarelli • J. Noland White
Procedural (Nondeclarative) LTM
LO 5.5 Different types of long-term memory
• Includes emotional associations, habits,
simple conditioned reflexes
– May or may not be in conscious
awareness
• Anterograde amnesia
– Damage to hippocampus
– New memories cannot be made
– Usually does NOT affect procedural LTM
Psychology: An Exploration, Second Edition
Saundra K. Ciccarelli • J. Noland White
Procedural knowledge, such as tying one’s shoes, often must be learned by doing, as it is difficult to put into
words. Once this child learns how to tie shoes, the knowledge will always be there to retrieve.
Psychology: An Exploration, Second Edition
Saundra K. Ciccarelli • J. Noland White
Procedural (Nondeclarative) LTM
LO 5.5 Different types of long-term memory
• Implicit memory
– Memory not easily brought into
conscious awareness
Psychology: An Exploration, Second Edition
Saundra K. Ciccarelli • J. Noland White
Figure 5.4 Tower of Hanoi
The Tower of Hanoi is a puzzle that is solved in a series of steps by moving one disk at a time. The goal is to
move all of the disks from peg A to peg C; the rules are that a larger disk can not be moved on top of a smaller
one and a disk can not be moved if there are other disks on top of it. Amnesia patients were able to learn the
procedure for solving the puzzle but could not remember that they knew how to solve it.
Psychology: An Exploration, Second Edition
Saundra K. Ciccarelli • J. Noland White
Declarative LTM
LO 5.5 Different types of long-term memory
• All the things that people know
• Semantic memory
– General knowledge, such as language
and information learned in formal
education
• Episodic memory
– Knowledge of personal information
 Not readily available to others
 Includes daily activities and events
Psychology: An Exploration, Second Edition
Saundra K. Ciccarelli • J. Noland White
Declarative LTM
LO 5.5 Different types of long-term memory
• Semantic and episodic memories are
forms of explicit memory
– Memory that is consciously known
Psychology: An Exploration, Second Edition
Saundra K. Ciccarelli • J. Noland White
Figure 5.5 Types of Long-Term Memories
Long-term memory can be divided into declarative memories, which are factual and typically conscious (explicit)
memories, and nondeclarative memories, which are skills, habits, and conditioned responses that are typically
unconscious (implicit). Declarative memories are further divided into episodic memories (personal experiences)
and semantic memories (general knowledge).
Psychology: An Exploration, Second Edition
Saundra K. Ciccarelli • J. Noland White
LTM Organization
LO 5.5 Different types of long-term memory
• LTM organized in terms of related
meanings and concepts.
• Semantic network model
– Model of memory organization
– Assumes information is stored in a
connected fashion
– Related concepts are stored physically
closer to each other than those not
related
Psychology: An Exploration, Second Edition
Saundra K. Ciccarelli • J. Noland White
Figure 5.6 An Example of a Semantic Network
In the semantic network model of memory, concepts that are related in meaning are thought to be stored
physically near each other in the brain. In this example, canary and ostrich are stored near the concept node for
“bird,” whereas shark and salmon are stored near “fish.” But the fact that a canary is yellow is stored directly
with that concept.
Psychology: An Exploration, Second Edition
Saundra K. Ciccarelli • J. Noland White
Retrieval Cues
LO 5.6 Kinds of cues that help people remember
• A stimulus for remembering
• Encoding specificity
– Retrieval of information is improved
 If related situation available when the
memory is first formed is available when
the memory is being retrieved
– Example:
 Best room to take a test in is the room
the material was learned in
Psychology: An Exploration, Second Edition
Saundra K. Ciccarelli • J. Noland White
Retrieval Cues
LO 5.6 Kinds of cues that help people remember
• Encoding specificity
– State-dependent learning
 Easier to recall memories if in same
physiological or psychological state as in
when memory was made
Psychology: An Exploration, Second Edition
Saundra K. Ciccarelli • J. Noland White
When this bride and groom dance together later on in their marriage, they will be able to recall this moment at
their wedding and the happiness they felt at that time. State-dependent learning makes it easier for people to
recall information stored while in a particular emotional state (such as the happiness of this couple) if the recall
occurs in a similar emotional state.
Psychology: An Exploration, Second Edition
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Recall
LO 5.6 Kinds of cues that help people remember
• Recall
– Information to be retrieved must be
“pulled” from memory
– Few external cues
• Retrieval failure
– Recall has failed temporarily
– Tip of the tongue phenomenon
Psychology: An Exploration, Second Edition
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Recall
LO 5.6 Kinds of cues that help people remember
• Serial position effect
– Remember information at the beginning
and end more accurately than
information in the middle
– Primacy effect
 Best remember information at the
beginning of a body of information
– Recency effect
 Best remember information at the end of
a body of information
Psychology: An Exploration, Second Edition
Saundra K. Ciccarelli • J. Noland White
These people are waiting to audition for a play. The person who auditioned first and the one who auditioned last
have the greatest chance of being remembered when the time comes for the director to choose. The serial
position effect will cause the impression made by the actors who come in the “middle” to be less memorable.
Psychology: An Exploration, Second Edition
Saundra K. Ciccarelli • J. Noland White
Figure 5.8 Serial Position Effect
In the serial position effect, information at the beginning of a list will be recalled at a higher rate than information
in the middle of the list (primacy effect), because the beginning information receives more rehearsal and may
enter LTM. Information at the end of a list is also retrieved at a higher rate (recency effect), because the end of
the list is still in STM, with no information coming after it to interfere with retrieval.
Psychology: An Exploration, Second Edition
Saundra K. Ciccarelli • J. Noland White
Recognition
LO 5.7 How recall and recognition differ
• The ability to match information or a
stimulus to a stored image or fact
• Usually easier than recall
• Tends to be very accurate for images
• False positive
– Error of recognition
– Recognize a stimulus not actually in
memory
Psychology: An Exploration, Second Edition
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Eyewitness Testimony
LO 5.7 How recall and recognition differ
• Elizabeth Loftus
– Memory researcher also trained as a
lawyer
– Information provided after event can
affect memory accuracy of initial event
– Eyewitness testimony not always
reliable
Psychology: An Exploration, Second Edition
Saundra K. Ciccarelli • J. Noland White
Dr. Elizabeth Loftus is an internationally known expert on the accuracy of eyewitness testimony. She is often
called on to testify in court cases.
Psychology: An Exploration, Second Edition
Saundra K. Ciccarelli • J. Noland White
Automatic Encoding and Flashbulb
Memories
LO 5.7 How recall and recognition differ
• Automatic encoding
– Information enters long-term memory
with little or no effortful encoding
• Flashbulb memories
– Automatic encoding
– Unexpected event with strong emotional
associations
– Emotions enhance formation of
long-term memories
Psychology: An Exploration, Second Edition
Saundra K. Ciccarelli • J. Noland White
Fans of entertainer Michael Jackson may remember the moment they heard of his death on June 25, 2009.
Events like this are so emotional for many people that the memories for the event are stored automatically, as if
the mind had taken a “flash” picture of that moment in time. Such “flashbulb” memories seem to be very
accurate but are actually no more accurate than any other memory.
Psychology: An Exploration, Second Edition
Saundra K. Ciccarelli • J. Noland White
Constructive Processing of Memories
LO 5.8 How long-term memories are formed
• Constructive processing
– Retrieval of memories altered, revised,
or influenced by newer information
• Hindsight bias
– Memories get revised to reflect new
information
– Falsely believe, through revision of older
memories that one correctly predicted
the outcome of an event
Psychology: An Exploration, Second Edition
Saundra K. Ciccarelli • J. Noland White
These men may engage in “Monday morning quarterbacking” as they apply hindsight to their memories of this
game. Their memories of the game may be altered by information they get afterward from the television,
newspapers, or their friends.
Psychology: An Exploration, Second Edition
Saundra K. Ciccarelli • J. Noland White
Memory Retrieval Problems
LO 5.8 How long-term memories are formed
• Misinformation effect
– Misleading information that becomes
part of memory
– Alters memory of the event itself
– Even if information is provided in a
different format, it can be incorporated
Psychology: An Exploration, Second Edition
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Reliability of Memory Retrieval
LO 5.9 False memory syndrome
• False memory syndrome
– Creation of inaccurate or false memories
through the suggestion of others
– Often while the person is under
hypnosis
– False memories are established in the
brain in the same manner as real
memories
– False memories must be plausible in
order to hold
Psychology: An Exploration, Second Edition
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Forgetting
LO 5.10 Different causes of forgetting
• Curve of forgetting
– Graph with distinct pattern
– Forgetting is very fast immediately after
learning
– Later tapers off gradually
• Distributed practice
– Spacing of material to be remembered
with breaks
– Much better recall than mass learning
Psychology: An Exploration, Second Edition
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Figure 5.9 Curve of Forgetting
Ebbinghaus found that his recall of words from his memorized word lists was greatest immediately after learning
the list but rapidly decreased within the first hour. After the first hour, forgetting leveled off.
Psychology: An Exploration, Second Edition
Saundra K. Ciccarelli • J. Noland White
Forgetting
LO 5.10 Different causes of forgetting
• Encoding failure
– Failure to have processed information
into memory
– Information does not get past sensory
memory
– See penny often but difficult to recall
details
Psychology: An Exploration, Second Edition
Saundra K. Ciccarelli • J. Noland White
Figure 5.10 Which Penny Is Real?
Most people do not really look at the face of a penny. Which of these pennies represents an actual penny? The
answer can be found on the next slide.
Psychology: An Exploration, Second Edition
Saundra K. Ciccarelli • J. Noland White
Figure 5.10 (continued) Which Penny Is Real?
Most people do not really look at the face of a penny. Which of these pennies represents an actual penny? The
answer is A.
Psychology: An Exploration, Second Edition
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Forgetting: Memory Trace Decay Theory
LO 5.10 Different causes of forgetting
• Physical change in the brain that occurs
when a memory is formed
– Decay
 Loss of memory
 Due to the passage of time
 Memory trace is not used
Psychology: An Exploration, Second Edition
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Forgetting: Memory Trace Decay Theory
LO 5.10 Different causes of forgetting
• Physical change in the brain that occurs
when a memory is formed
• Disuse
 Another name for decay
 Memories not used will eventually decay
and disappear
Psychology: An Exploration, Second Edition
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The fact that this woman can remember the things shown in the pictures even after many years makes it unlikely
that the memory trace decay theory can explain all forgetting in long-term memory.
Psychology: An Exploration, Second Edition
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Forgetting: Interference Theory
LO 5.10 Different causes of forgetting
• Proactive interference
– Older information prevents or interferes
with retrieval of newer information
• Retroactive interference
– Newer information prevents or
interferes with the retrieval of older
information
Psychology: An Exploration, Second Edition
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Figure 5.11 Proactive and Retroactive Interference
If a student were to study for a French exam and then a Spanish exam, interference could occur in two
directions. When taking the Spanish exam, the French information studied first may proactively interfere with the
learning of the new Spanish information. But when taking the French exam, the more recently studied Spanish
information may retroactively interfere with the retrieval of the French information.
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Table 5.1
Reasons for Forgetting
Psychology: An Exploration, Second Edition
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Neuroscience of Memory
LO 5.11 How and where memories are formed in the brain
• Procedural memories seem to be stored
in the cerebellum
• PET scans suggest short-term
memories are stored in the prefrontal
cortex and temporal lobe
• Consolidation
– Changes in structure and functioning of
neurons when a memory is formed
Psychology: An Exploration, Second Edition
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Amnesia
LO 5.12 How does Amnesia occur
• Retrograde amnesia
– Loss of memory for the past
– Memory loss coincides with injury or
illness
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Amnesia
LO 5.12 How does Amnesia occur
• Anterograde amnesia
– Inability to form new long-term
memories
 Senile dementia
– Form of anterograde amnesia though
retrograde amnesia may also be present
Psychology: An Exploration, Second Edition
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Alzheimer’s Disease
LO 5.13 What are the facts about Alzheimer’s disease
• 5.3 million Americans have Alzheimer’s
(Alzheimer’s Association, 2010)
• The most common type of dementia
– 60 to 80 percent of all cases of
dementia
• Brain forms large number of betaamyloid protein deposits (plaques)
– Strands of protein become twisted
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Alzheimer’s Disease
LO 5.13 What are the facts about Alzheimer’s disease
• Risk factors include diabetes, obesity,
smoking, high cholesterol
• Treatments slow but do not stop the
disease
• Involvement in new learning on daily
basis stimulates brain derived
neurotropic factors
Psychology: An Exploration, Second Edition
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