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COGNITIVE PERSPECTIVE Out of Sight, but Not Out of Mind 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. What are subsequent areas of study on this subject? Theoretically, how does intellect develop? Discuss recent applications of this research. Briefly describe the experimentation used for Piaget’s study. Briefly describe Piaget’s view on intellectual development? What are the criticisms of this research? Who is Jean Piaget? After reading the article conclusion, what is YOUR conclusion? “Thanks for the Memories!” 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. What are subsequent areas of study on this subject? Theoretically, how does memory develop? Discuss recent applications of this research. Briefly describe the experimentation used for Loftus’ experimentation. Briefly describe Loftus’ view on memory? What are the criticisms of this research? Who is Elizabeth Loftus? After reading the article, what is YOUR conclusion? What is the importance of this research? Learning objectives: Vocabulary • • • • • • • • • • • • Concept Cognitive schema Deductive reasoning Convergent thinking Assimilation Accommodation Algorithm Conservation Egocentric thinking Confirmation bias Mental set Justification of effort • • • • • • • • • • • • Cognitive dissonance Cognitive ethology Divergent thinking Mental image Subconscious processes Nonconscious processes reasoning Inductive reasoning Object permanence Confirmation bias Hindsight bias Theory of mind Concerned with how people acquire, store, transform, use and communicate information. Nosce te Ipsum • Cognition comes from the Latin word cognoscere: “To Know” • Cognitive processes refer to the processes that images or concepts undergo to form knowledge using perception, problem solving, memory, language, and attention. Three Principles of Cognitive Psychology: 1. Human beings are information processors and mental processes are linked to human behavior. 2. The mind can be studies scientifically by developing theories and using scientific research methods. 3. Cognitive processes are influenced by social and cultural factors. Elements of Cognition • Why do we think? • To go beyond the present • Manipulation of mental representations • Simplifying and summarizing information aids in problem solving Human beings are information processors • How do we acquire knowledge? • Bottom up processing: our senses pull in basic units of information. • Our mind processes this information in a top-down processing model to match the basic units of information with our prior knowledge. Processing modeled: Look at the pictures below… determine what they are. Elements of Cognition • Solutions: Connect the dots using no more than 4 straight lines, without lifting your pencil or pen from the paper – a line must pass through each point. Human beings are information processors We think with Concept: categories • Chihuahua • Dalmation • Great Dane • Battle of Waterloo • WWI • Vietnam Conflict • Pencil • Paper • stapler • Anger • Joy • Sadness Prototype and Propositions • Prototype: representative sample • Football • Weight lifting • Cheerleading • Propositions: relationships between concepts that express a unitary idea Both statements below are true and create a possible relationship within a category • John breeds dogs • Pitbulls are beautiful dogs •What is the concept? •Which one is the “prototype”? How we process, categorize, and know information: schema theory Links and associations that we make create a complicated network of knowledge, associations, beliefs, and expectations called cognitive schemas. • Perception • Reconstructive nature of memory • False memories • If information is missing, the mind replaces that missing information with something from our existing schema which could lead to distortions. Schema: models of the world that represent “knowing” • • • • Gender schema Educational schema Racial schema Cultural schema Cognitive Schemas: • Organize information about the world with prior knowledge. • Can be related to form systems • Pattern recognition • General knowledge rather than definitions Elements of Cognition • How conscious is thought? • Subconscious - lie outside of awareness but can be brought into consciousness processes when necessary -typing, driving, reading • Nonconscious processes - lie outside of awareness and NOT available to conscious awareness - intuition & insight *Conscious processes needed for deliberate choices *Much thinking conscious, but still mindless (we act from habit – without analyzing) Elements of Cognition • Olny srmat poelpe can slvoe tihs. I cdnuolt blveiee taht I cluod aulaclty uesdnatnrd waht I was rdanieg. The phaonmneal pweor of the hmuan mnid, aoccdrnig to a rscheearch at Cmabrigde Uinervtisy, it deosn't mttaer in waht oredr the ltteers in a wrod are, the olny iprmoatnt tihng is taht the frist and lsat ltteer be in the rghit pclae. The rset can be a taotl mses and you can sitll raed it wouthit a porbelm. Tihs is bcuseae the huamn mnid deos not raed ervey lteter by istlef, but the wrod as a wlohe. Amzanig huh? yaeh and I awlyas tghuhot slpeling was ipmorantt! Elements of Cognition • Reasoning cont’d Connect the dots using no more than 4 straight lines, without lifting your pencil or pen from the paper – a line must pass through each point. Elements of Cognition • Reasoning & creativity • Reasoning - operating on information in order to reach conclusions • Formal reasoning - information needed for drawing a conclusion or reach a solution is specified clearly and there is a single right (or best) answer - algorithm (recipe) following procedures or steps Deductive Reasoning: I am standing outside getting wet and the weather man said it was supposed to rain; therefore, it must be raining. Inductive Reasoning: There are 100 dogs in the kennel. All of the dogs in the kennel have fleas; therefore all dogs have fleas. Elements of Cognition • Reasoning cont’d • Informal reasoning - there may be NO clearly correct solution Ie. abortion • Heuristic (“rule of thumb”) • Dialectic (comparing & evaluating opposing points of view) ie. juries • Creative thinking - Creativity involves going beyond present knowledge and habit to produce new solutions -Mental sets – using the same strategies that worked in the past • Convergent thinking = aimed at finding a single correct answer • Divergent thinking = explores unconventional alternatives in problem solving • Creativity associated with: •nonconformity, curiosity, persistence •Georges de Mestral MEMORY • Reconstructing the Past • Memory • Refers to the capacity to retain and retrieve information • Refers to the structures that account for this capacity Memory confers competence and a sense of identity “Of all the things I’ve lost…I miss my mind the most!” MEMORY • What do we REALLY remember? • Do we remember things that never happened? • Do we forget traumatic events that did happen? • Are memory malfunctions the exception to the rule, or are they the norm? • What is dementia? • What is amnesia? • If memory is not always reliable, how can we hope to know the story of our own lives? MEMORY • Manufacture of memory • Is a reconstructive process • NOT like a video camera • Source amnesia – inability to distinguish what you originally experienced from what you heard or were told MEMORY • Memory & the Power of Suggestion Remember when you dressed up as Wonder Woman for Halloween? MEMORY • The Fading Flashbulb • Flashbulb memories: vivid recollections of unusual events • Not always complete or accurate • The Conditions of Confabulation • Confabulation: • Confusing an event that happened to someone else with one that happened to you • Believing that you remember something that never happened • Likely when: •You have thought about the imagined event many times •The image contains a lot of details •Event is easy to imagine •You focus your emotional reactions to the event rather than on what actually happened. MEMORY • Eyewitness on Trial • Not always reliable •Errors especially likely to occur when the suspect’s ethnicity differs from that of the witness •Accounts influenced by leading questions, suggestive comments & misleading information • Children’s Testimony • Two extreme views about children reporting abuse • Children always lie • Children never lie • Extremists on either side are wrong • Research on children’s testimony shows: •Accurately recollect MOST of what they observed or experienced •Sometimes say something happened when it did not •Can be influenced to report in a certain way • Children’s suggestibility if influenced by: •Age (preschoolers’ memories more vulnerable to suggestion) •Pressure to conform to an interviewer’s expectations MEMORY • Memory under hypnosis • Hypnosis •Procedure where practitioner suggests changes in sensations, perceptions, thoughts, feelings or behavior of the subject, who cooperates by altering normal cognitive functioning • Many uses in treatment of psychological and medical problems • Does not increase the accuracy of memory • Tendency to confuse fact and speculation increased by desire to please hypnotist • Boosts amount of information recalled, but also amount of errors • Cannot be used to produce a re-experience of long-ago events MEMORY = QUIZ 1. Memory is like (a) a wax tablet, (b) a giant file cabinet, (c) a video recorder (d) none of these 2. Like other memories, flashbulb memories are vulnerable to distortion. True or false 3. Which of the following confabulated memories might a person be most inclined to accept as having really happened in the past and why? (a) being lost in a shopping center at the age of 5, (b) taking a class in astrophysics, (c) visiting a monastery in Tibet as a child, (d) being bullied by another kid in the fourth grade 4. Which statement about hypnosis is correct? (a) it reduces errors in memory, (b) it enables people to relive memories from infancy, (c) it permits people to relive a former life, (d) it demonstrates that memories are permanently and accurately stored in the brain. 5. Research suggests that the best way to encourage truthful testimony by children is to (a) reassure them that their friends have had the same experience, (b) reward them for telling you that something happened (c) punish them if you believe they are lying, (d) try to avoid leading questions. MEMORY • In Pursuit of Memory • Measuring memory • Explicit memory is conscious, intentional recollection of an event or an item of information. Measured by: •Recall: ability to retrieve and reproduce the memory from previously encountered material •Recognition: ability to identify previously encountered material. •Recognition is superior to recall MEMORY • In Pursuit of Memory • Measuring memory • Implicit memory is unconscious retention in memory. Evidenced by effect of previous experience or previously encountered information Measured by: •Priming: method for measuring implicit memory •Person reads or listens to information and is later tested to see whether information affects performance •Relearning method: method for measuring retention that compares the time required to relearn material with time used to initially learn material •Rubix cube MEMORY • Models of Memory • Information-processing model - Likens the mind to a highly complex computer •Information-processing model includes: •Encoding: conversion of information into a form that can be received by the brain •Storing material over time •Retrieving or recovering stored material •In storage, information may be represented as cognitive schema •Mental networks of knowledge, beliefs or expectations AKA: Multi-store Model of Memory MEMORY • Information-processing model • Multi-Storage model •Storage processing takes place in three systems: Rehearsal SENSORY MEMORY *large capacity *VERY brief retention Forgotten Decay SHORT-TERM MEMORY *limited capacity *Brief storage *Conscious processing of information Transferred Selective attention Retrieval LONG-TERM MEMORY *unlimited capacity *thought to be Permanent *organized & indexed Transferred/ Forgotten Displacement Received Encoding Loss (Not available) amnesia MEMORY • Models of Memory • Information-processing model cont’d •Storage processing takes place in three systems: cont’d •THREE-BOX MODEL OF MEMORY memory – retains incoming sensory information for a •1ST •Sensory second or two, entryway of memory: Modality specific •Visual images – remain for up to half a second in a visual subsystem •Pattern recognition – identification of a stimulus on the basis of information already contained in long-term memory. Occurs during transfer from sensory to short-term memory MEMORY • Models of Memory • Information-processing model cont’d •Storage processing takes place in three systems: (cont’d) •2nd •Short-term memory – holds a limited amount of information for a brief period. Also holds retrieved info from long-term memory for temporary use •Info not transferred from STM to long-term memory is lost •STM is also known as working memory •Estimates capacity of STM range from 2 to 20 items (we like 7) •Chunk = meaningful unit of information, may be composed of small units. •Grouping items into chunks increases the capacity of STM MEMORY • Models of Memory • Information-processing model cont’d •Storage processing takes place in three systems: (cont’d) •3rd •Long-term memory (LTM) – final destination, storage for up to decades •No practical limit to capacity of LTM •Organization in Long-term memory •Semantic categories •Network models – interrelated concepts and propositions •Way words look or sound. (Tip-of-the-tongue (TOT)) •States •Familiarity, relevance or association with other info MEMORY • Models of Memory • Information-processing model cont’d •Storage processing takes place in three systems: (cont’d) •Long-term memory (LTM) cont-d •Contents of Long-term memory •Procedural memories •Memories for performance of actions or skills (“knowing how”) •Declarative memories •Semantic memories: general knowledge including facts, rules, concepts, propositions •Episodic memories: personally experienced events and the context in which they occurred MEMORY • Models of Memory cont’d • From short-term to long-term •Serial position effect •Recall of first & last items on list •Primacy effect: better recall for items at beginning of list •Recency effect: better recall for items at end of list (most “recent” items) Working Memory Model: • Used the Multi-Storage model: • Expanded: STM is several components that are active. • Baddeley and Hitch (1974) suggested the Schema theory is too simplistic and the multi store model does not address multi-tasking: Retrieval Recover from memory Encoding Put into memory Storage Maintain in Memory Schema Theory Baddeley and Hitch proposal: Working memory model: Central Executive Phonological Loop and Store Episodic Buffer • Long-Term Storage Memory Visuospatial Sketchpad 1st Tier: • Central executive: – Controlling system that monitors and coordinates the other components. (slave systems) • Limited capacity and modality free • Attention control – Automatic level: habit and routines – Supervisory attentional level: Emergency response: instinctive behaviors (avoiding fire/car accident) 2nd Tier systems • Phonological loop: two components: auditory senses • Articulatory Control System (inner voice): information received and transmitted verbally. – Repeat phone number to yourself. • Phonological store: holds speech-based material (inner ear) – Word bank when preparing to speak. • A memory trace can only last from 1.5 to 2 seconds if not refreshed with the articulatory control system. • The Phonological Store can receive information from sensory memory, LTM, and ACS. 2nd tier systems continued: • Visuospatial sketchpad: (inner eye) controls our visual and spatial from either visual senses or LTM. • Episodic buffer: temporary and passive display of information • (like a television or computer monitor) • (chronology, sequencing, maps) • works with Phonological Loop and the Visuospatial sketchpad Baddeley and Hitch (1974) • Dual-task technique: interference tasks support memory model. – Carry out a cognitive task that uses the capacity of STM. – Ask person to complete a second cognitive task: • two tasks interfere with each other impairing one or both the tasks use same component in STM. • No interference: separate components in STM. Evaluation of Baddeley and Hitch • Theory of working memory explains the memory process and accounts for multitasking abilities. • Critique: Lots… the episodic buffer component was not added to the model until 2000. The theory is still developing and our complete understanding of memory is still underdeveloped. MEMORY • How We Remember • Encoding • To improve memory: •Automatic encoding •Effortful encoding •Encode elaborately •select •Use distributed not massed learning •label •associate sessions •rehearse •Monitor your •Maintenance rehearsal learning •Elaborative rehearsal •Overlearn the •Deep processing material • Mnemonics MEMORY • Why we forget • Decay • Replacement • Interference •Retroactive interference •Proactive interference • Cue-dependent forgetting • State-dependent memory • Psychogenic amnesia •Psychodynamic = is repressed and can be retrieved •However, traumatic events more likely to be REMEMBERED MEMORY • Autobiographical Memories • Childhood Amnesia •Lack of sense of self •Impoverished encoding •Focus on the routine •Different way of thinking about the world • Memory & Narrative •Narrative provide unifying themes •Narrative rely on memory, interpretation & imagination •Old people remember more: •Adolescence •Early adulthood •AKA reminiscence bump Long-Term Memory Implicit memories (“Knowing HOW”) Explicit memories (“Knowing THAT”) Episodic memories (Personal recollections) Semantic memories (General knowledge) MEMORY and EMOTION • The hippocampus and the amygdala have an important role in long term memory. • LeDoux (neuroscientist) determined that memories associated with emotional significance (both good and bad) are better remembered. – PTSD – Abuse – Marriages Key concepts COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT PIAGET • Longitudinal Case studies, naturalistic observation, in lab COGNITIVE • Three main contributions How children acquire knowledge : Children intrinsically motivated to explore • • • • Logical Flaws in thinking Stages of cognitive development Mind divided into Schemas- mental structures which contain info indiv. has relating to world, beliefs/expectations based on experience operations- rules by which world operates, operations change as we mature, errors in children's logic due to limited operations Assimilation (alter existing schema) Accommodation (new schema is formed) Stages of cognitive development Elements of Cognition • THE DEVELOPMENT OF THOUGHT & REASONING • PIAGET’S STAGES - How children think - Thought involves adaptation to new observations & experiences & takes two forms • Assimilation - process of absorbing new information into existing cognitive structures • Accommodation - process of modifying existing cognitive structures in response to experience and new information Elements of Cognition • Development cont’d • Piaget’s four stages of cognitive development 1) Sensory-motor stage (birth to age 2) involves: - learning through concrete actions - coordinating sensory information with bodily movements - attaining object permanence 2) Preoperational stage (ages 2 to 7) - accelerated use of symbols and language - mental actions are cognitively reversible - engage only in egocentric thinking - cannot grasp the concept of conservation Elements of Cognition • Development cont’d • Piaget’s four stages cont’d 3) Concrete operations stage (ages 7 to 12) - understand conservation, reversibility, cause & effect, identity, serial ordering - perform some mental operations such as math 4) Formal operations stage (ages 12 to adulthood - abstract reasoning - comparison & classification of ideas - reasoning about situations they have not experienced firsthand and future possibilities - systematic problem solving - logical conclusions based on premises common to culture and experience Elements of Cognition • Development cont’d • Piaget cont’d Questions to Piaget’s theory - stage changes are not sweeping or clear-cut - Children can understand far more than given credit for - Preschoolers not as egocentric as proposed Strengths - proposed children think differently than adults - development is a process - research supports findings Weaknesses - controversial ideas - conservation tasks affected by circumstances COGNITIVE Key concepts COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT PIAGET Strengths • Proposal children think differently than adults • Proposed development is a process • Later research supports his findings (Smith 1998) Weaknesses • Demand characteristics • Methodological flaw • Stages controversial idea. • Conservation tasks affected by circumstances (McGarrigle and Donaldson 1974. Elements of Cognition • Development cont’d • How adults think Reflective judgment - questioning assumptions - evaluating evidence - relating evidence to theory or opinion - considering alternative interpretations - reaching reasonable and plausible conclusions that can be defended - reassessing conclusions in the face of new information King & Kitchner – 7 stages - two pre-reflective stages - three quasi-reflective stages - two reflective stages • Reflective judgment not usually developed until middle or late 20’s if at all COGNITIVE Key concepts COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT VYGOTSKY • Influenced by communist philosophy (Soviet Union) • Sociocultural theory of development- children's cognitive develop. is a function of their interaction with more skilled and sophisticated partners • ZPD- moving within zones • Language for communication, a tool for thinking • Similarities with Piaget: Each child is born with innate abilities, held develop. Stages • Differences with Piaget: stressed language more, culture and society COGNITIVE Key concepts COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT VYGOTSKY Strengths Weaknesses • Recognized imp of • Ethnocentric social and culture • Exaggeration of • Research supports importance of culture children learn faster when working together • New theorists: tools of diff cultures have qualitative difference: reduce ethnocentrism COGNITIVE Key concepts COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT BRUNER • Rejected idea of dev. Stages • Emphasis on form of information which affects type of reasoning 1. Enactive Representation- based on physical actions. 2. Iconic- pictures or mental images 3. Symbolic- numbers and language key • Built on ZPD by introducing scaffolding/ when teachers adjust amount and type of support to develop sophisticated skills COGNITIVE Key concepts COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT BRUNER Strengths Weaknesses • Useful ideas to be • Abstract reasoning applied in education appears much later than symbolic thought COGNITIVE Applications • Important effect on education. – Before 1960 teaching in England was mainly influenced by behaviorism (reward, punishment) linear learning, children passive receivers, no importance on stages – In 1967 with Plowden Report there is a shift to child centered teaching: children need to be ready based on maturity to get information. Emotions, physical, and intellectual development is at different rates. Children learn through discovery and in groups or through scaffolding. Elements of Cognition • BARRIERS TO REASONING RATIONALLY • • • • • • • Need to be right Mental laziness Hindsight bias Exaggerating the improbable Avoiding loss Confirmation bias Need for cognitive consistency • Cognitive dissonance - State of tension that occurs when a person’s belief is incongruent with his or her behavior COGNITIVE What we know and what we do? Rate your opinion of each statement using a scale of 1 to 5. 1 = strongly disagree and 5 strongly agree. 1. I feel that there is a problem with homeless in the United States. 2. I feel that world hunger is a problem. 3. I feel that obesity is a problem in the United States. 4. Global warming is a world-wide problem. 5. Children (all ages) today are too demanding. 6. Americans too materialistic. COGNITIVE Point made State “yes” or “no” to the following questions on whether you REGULARLY PERFORM THE ACTION. (BE HONEST) 1. Do you help the homeless? 2. Do you contribute to world hunger programs? 3. Do you work to combat obesity in the U.S.? 4. Do you work to reduce the effects of global warming? 5. Are you demanding? 6. Are you materialistic? Elements of Cognition • Cognitive Dissonance cont’d • State of tension is uncomfortable and motivates a person to reduce it, especially: • Justify a choice or decision freely made • Actions violate self concept • Justification of effort • Overcoming Cognitive Biases • Not equally irrational • Biases diminish when: • Expertise • Serious consequences • Understanding biases helps reduce or eliminate them COGNITIVE Applications Therapy: • Rational- emotive therapy (rationally examining negative thought patterns) • stress’-inoculñation (consciously replacing negative thoughts with positve, coping thoughts) COGNITIVE Strenghts and limitations of Cognitive Development Strengths • New proposals on mental processes • Importance of mental structures to understand link between age and behavior • Practical applications • Usually use scientific and objective research Weaknesses • Specialized and thus limited contribution • Neglected individual differences in cognitive development COGNITIVE Strengths and limitations of Cognitive Development • Children have distinct • From psychodynamic forms of thinking than perspective neglects adults children's emotional development • Applied successfully in education • From behaviorist perspective over speculation of mental processes, need to be more scientific COGNITIVE Key concepts MEMORY • Types of Memory – – – – – – – Reconstructive Memory Autobiographical Memory Flashbulb Memory Declarative Memory (that) Procedural (how to) Episodic (personal meaning) Semantic (general facts) • Types of Rehearsal – Rote – Elaborative Rehearsing X, G, I, T, M, R, A, S, D, O, L, Q, Z, P Pg 36 Recall Algeria Yugoslavia Puerto Rico Switzerland Madagascar Ireland China Kenya Venezuela Cuba Germany Afghanistan Canada Panama Pg 36 Recall • Write as many words as you can recall Pg 36 Recognition Blitzen Masher Comet Flasher Grumpy Sneezy Dander Cupid Kumquat Pixie Blintzes Dopy Dancer Prancer Donder Bouncer Trixie Vixen Identify Rudolph the Red-Nosed Reindeer’s reindeer friends from this list. Pg 36 Priming definition available defer calendar halt defrost greyhound storage defy comet definitely mechanism generation morning deface collection retrieve fantastic pinnacle degenerate collage XTNTUSACBSNBCX Confusion? I cdnuolt blveiee taht I cluod aulaclty uesdnatnrd waht I was rdanieg. The phaonmneal pweor of the hmuan mnid, aoccdrnig to a rscheearch at Cmabrigde Uinervtisy, it deosn't mttaer in waht oredr the ltteers in a wrod are, the olny iprmoatnt tihng is taht the frist and lsat ltteer be in the rghit pclae. The rset can be a taotl mses and you can sitll raed it wouthit a porbelm. This is bcuseae the huamn mnid deos not raed ervey lteter by istlef, but the wrod as a wlohe. Amzanig huh? yaeh and I awlyas tghuhot slpeling was ipmorantt!