Download ENCODING PROCESSES CHAPTER 4

ENCODING PROCESSES
CHAPTER 4
Lora Rochelle
Thursday, September 16, 2004
INTRODUCTION

Scientists have been discovering and
uncovering each part of the human
memory system in order to help better
understand how we encode our
memories, and retrieve them as well.

Understanding these memory processes
can help parents to improve the
prospect of a higher education for their
children early in life, and help people
improve the quality of their memory
and recollection processes
OVERVIEW

Psychologists refer to storing memories
as an encoding process--a procedure for
transforming something a person sees
hears, thinks, or feels into a memory.

Scientists have determined there are
different methods in how we lay down
our memories. This is done through
encoding.
Shallow Encoding
Maintenance Rehearsal (Craik,1979)

Repeating information to yourself , such
as a phone number, is a process of
encoding that is part of our working,
short-term memory most of us use
when we need to hold a small amount
of linguistic information in mind for
several seconds. Repeating a phone
number to yourself only temporarily
stores the information.

Many people do not understand why
this type of encoding doesn't work for
long-term memory -- it is due to our
utilizing our brain's phonological loop,
that relies on a part of the brain
designed only for short-term memory
purposes.
Elaborative Rehearsal

If you've ever had trouble remembering
something you truly wanted to
remember, as most of us, you probably
just view yourself as possessing less
intelligence than others.

These continued experiences of not
being able to remember something
promotes low self-esteem, not to
mention embarrassment. What you are
really missing in the memory encoding
process, isn't intelligence, but a type of
mental glue, scientists call elaborative
encoding.
Elaborative Rehearsal

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In order to encode incoming information, or
an event, into long-term memory, the best
way to do this is to link, associate or connect
the incoming information with something
already in your memory in order to make it
meaningful.
You can retrieve the memory, because you
have an actual means to recall it, due to
associating, linking or connecting the
incoming information with something already
in your memory.
Research Suggests


Research suggest that elaborative rehearsal is
far superior to maintenance rehearsal for
long-term recall but that it tends to use
considerably more of a person’s cognitive
resources than maintenance rehearsal (Craik,
1979).
It also suggests that maintenance and
elaborative rehearsal need to be thought of
as representing opposite ends on the
continuum of rehearsal.
Research cont.

At one extreme of the continuum would
be the minimal processing needed to
repeat a term over and over.

Susan (pg. 66) started at the top of her
spelling list, reads the first word, and spells
it to herself over and over. She does this
six times for each of the 25 words on her
list and than sets the list aside.
Research cont.


At the other end would be processing
activities (elaborative rehearsal) in which the
to-be-learned information was linked with
several bits of information already in memory.
An example of elaborative rehearsal in
learning the spelling words can be seen in
how the fourth-grade daughter of one of the
authors learned to spell respectfully (pg 67).
She connected the word with the lyrics of an
old song Respect.
MEDIATION

Mediation is one of the simplest elaborative
encoding strategies.



Mediation involves tying difficult-to-remember
items to something more meaningful.
The original research on mediation in memory was
based on the learning of paired nonsense syllables
(e.g., BOZ and BUH).
Mediation results in deeper, more elaborate
encoding than simple repetition of new content.
Mnemonics


There are visualization or guided imagery techniques
you can also use to recall memories. You can
visualize your mind as having many rooms, full of
many objects related to your memories, of which you
can add a new memory by placing it in its most
appropriate room and location.
Mnemonics has been used effectively throughout
history and has played a major role, exerting a large
influence on artistic and religious life, especially
during the Middle Ages
Mnemonics cont.

Mnemonics are memory strategies that help
people remember information. Typically,
mnemonics involve pairing to-be-learned
information with well-learned information in
order to make the new information more
memorable.

Mnemonics helps use learn new information by
making it easier to elaborate, chunk, or retrieve it
from memory.


“i before e except after c”
“Every Good Boy Does Fine”
Different Methods of Encoding


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The Peg Method - students memorize a
series of “pegs” (pg 70).
The Method of Loci -use of location to
recall information (pg 71).
The Link Method - best for learning list
of things, form image for each item in
the list of things to be learned.
Different Methods of Encoding


The First-Letter Method students report
using this method. Use first letters of to-belearned words to construct acronyms or
words.
The Keyword Method - two separate stages:
stage one - the acoustic link - id keyword.
Stage two - visual image of the keyword
interacting with the meaning of the to-belearned vocabulary word.


Since 1975, a very large amount of research
has been done on the keyword method.
In general, results have been positive among
students of all ages (J.R. Levin, 1986, Raugh,
1975; Pressley: 1977); the keyword method
has been exceptionally effective in improving
the learning of students with mild retardation
and learning disabilities (Mastropieri &
Scruggs, 1989).
Schema Activation

Schema Activation refers to various
methods designed to activate students’
relevant knowledge prior to a learning
activity (Pearson, 1984).
Conclusion


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Summary of Mnemonics (pg. 74)
Mnemonics are rhymes, sayings, and
other procedures designed to make new
material memorable.
They help create more elaborate
encoding of new materials and strong
memory traces.


The peg method and the method of loci
both depend on a well-learned base to
which to-be-learned information is
related.
The link and story methods put to-belearned items together in a list and rely
on the recall of the overall image or
story to facilitate recall.


The first-letter mnemonic chains items
together by forming a word or acronym
from the first letters of the words in a
to-be-learned list.
The most powerful and flexible
mnemonic is the keyword method,
which employs interactive imagery to
form and acoustic and visual link.
Importance - Application

For over two decades there has been an
abundance of research regarding
strategy instruction. Originally, most of
this research focused on the effects of
strategy instruction on students with
learning disabilities. Researchers are
currently looking at how strategy
instruction affects all learners.
Strategy Instructions
Psychology & Education


The Individuals with Disabilities
Education Act (IDEA) of 1997
and No Child Left Behind (NCLB) Act of
2001 focus on improved achievement
by all students.
Skillstreaming


There are a variety of methods
designed to assist teachers in
developing programs and curriculum
focused on social skills training.
Skillstreaming is one method formed by
Ellen McGinnis and Arnold Goldstein
that systematically teaches prosocial
skills to young children (1990).


McGinnis and Goldstein describe three
settings where social skills are taught:
large groups, small groups, and
individual instruction.
Large groups consist of twenty or more
children and are used when teaching a
class general instructions regarding a
new skill.


To allow for role-playing and optimal
practice time, small groups that include
eight to ten children are often typically
seen.
Although primarily designed for a
group setting, children with autism
appear to benefit from individual
instruction. (used in family therapy)

The first step in a Skillstreaming
program is to acquaint students with
the concept of social skills and illustrate
activities that will be performed.

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Teaching the new skills includes a fourstep procedure:
Modeling (showing how to do a skill)
Role playing (trying the skill with the
teacher or a peer)
Performance feedback (talking about
how they did)
Transfer training (practicing the skill)

Children with autism need extra help
learning social skills and they often lack
the prerequisites to function as part of a
group (McGinnis and Goldstein, 1990).

There are forty specific skills outlined
and described in the Skillstreaming
manual that range from "listening" to
"knowing when to tell"
References
Burning, R., Schraw, G., & Associates. (2004). Cognitive Psychology
and Instruction. Upper Saddler River, NJ: Pearson Education,
Inc.
De La Paz, S. (1999). Self-regulated strategy instruction in regular
education settings: Improving outcomes for students with and
without learning disabilities. Learning Disabilities Research and
Practice, 14, 92-118.
Pressley, M., Woloshyn, V., & Associates.
(1995). Cognition strategy instruction that really improves
children’s academic performances. Cambridge, MA: Brookline
Books.