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Chapter 14
The Expansive Realm of Islam
THE CHAPTER IN PERSPECTIVE
After the decline and collapse of the classical empires, new societies rose to take their place. A
series of these states were inspired by a new religion, Islam. From its origins in Arabia, Islam quickly
spread to the Sasanid Empire in Persia and even into parts of Byzantium. Muslims, or “ones who have
submitted” to the will of Allah, spread their religious convictions but also drew inspiration from the
Persian, Greek, and Indian worlds. Eventually the dar al-Islam (“house of Islam”) would cover a
cosmopolitan world ranging from Spain in the west to India in the east.
OVERVIEW
A Prophet and His World
The heartland of this new religion was the desert peninsula of Arabia, populated by the nomadic
Bedouins. Arabian merchants played an important role in long-distance trade. Muhammad (570–632 C.E.)
was born into this merchant tradition. Although an orphan, Muhammad eventually achieved a position in
society through his marriage to the wealthy widow Khadija. In a series of visions Muhammad learned from
the archangel Gabriel that he was Allah’s prophet, although he did not set out to create a new world
religion. After coming into conflict with the Meccan wealthy classes, Muhammad led his followers in 622
to the northern city of Yathrib (renamed Medina). This journey, called the hijra, was the turning point in
Muhammad’s career and is still recognized as the starting point of the Islamic calendar. In Medina
Muhammad served as the religious, political, and social leader of his community (umma). In 630
Muhammad and his followers conquered Mecca and destroyed the idols at the Ka’ba. Two years later he
led the first pilgrimage, or hajj, to the Ka’ba. His plans to unite Arabia and spread Islam beyond its borders
were cut short by his death in 632.
Muhammad was a strict monotheist, believing that Allah was the one true God. His revelations
from Allah were recorded in the Quran. Although he displayed immense respect for the Jewish and
Christian religions, Muhammad came to see himself as the “seal of the prophets.” As the final prophet, he
was the only one who recognized the complete revelation of Allah. The Five Pillars of Islam formed the
basic obligations of the faith: (1) acknowledgment of Allah as the only God and Muhammad as his prophet,
(2) prayer to Allah while facing Mecca, (3) fast during the holy month of Ramadan, (4) alms for the weak
and poor, (5) a pilgrimage to Mecca at least once during a Muslim’s lifetime. Sometimes jihad is seen as a
sixth pillar. The sharia, or Islamic holy law, provided guidance on issues ranging from family life to
commercial relationships.
The Expansion of Islam
After the death of Muhammad political authority passed to Abu Bakr as caliph. A century of
tremendous expansion followed, as Islamic armies seized Syria, Palestine, Mesopotamia, Egypt, north
Africa, Persia, Sind in northwestern India, and the Iberian peninsula. Despite the military success, political
problems, usually centering around the selection of caliphs, remained a constant challenge. A fundamental
split in Islam between Sunni (“traditionalists”) and Shia (“party”) grew out of this conflict. The majority
Sunni felt that leadership could be held by any true believer. Shia began as a sect that believed that the
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caliphate had to be in the hands of descendants of the assassinated fourth caliph Ali, who was a cousin and
son-in-law of Muhammad.
Eventually this political chaos led to the establishment of the Umayyad dynasty (661–750),
centered around the city of Damascus. The Arab military aristocracy enjoyed a favored position under the
Umayyads, which caused tensions among the different ethnic and religious groups of the dar al-Islam.
Conquered peoples were allowed to practice their own religions but were forced to pay the jizya. NonArabic Muslims also felt restrained under the Umayyad rule.
A rebellion in Persia led by Abu al-Abbas brought an end to the Umayyad dynasty and the
beginning of the Abbasid dynasty (750–1258). The Abbasid dynasty was both more tolerant and more
cosmopolitan than its predecessor. Even though the Abbasid caliphs did not actively push for expansion,
Crete, Sicily, the Balearic Islands, Cyprus, Rhodes, Sardinia, Corsica, southern Italy, and southern France
were added to the empire. The Abbasid state, made its capital the new city of Baghdad, and copied
administrative techniques from the Persians. Officials such as the ulama and gadis created a standing army
and oversaw taxation, finance and postal, services. The reign of Harun al-Rashid (786–809) would serve as
the high point of Abbasid economic and artistic splendor. Decline followed quickly, however, and for the
last two centuries the Abbasids were effectively ruled by the Saljuq Turks. The Mongols brought a
definitive end to the Abbasid state with their conquest in 1258.
Economy and Society of the Early Islamic World
A zone of trade and communication stretching from Spain to India was created by the conquests of
the Umayyad and Abbasid dynasties. New crops, including sugarcane, rice, spinach, oranges, lemons,
bananas, cotton, and new varieties of wheat, were introduced into different regions along this route. The
result was an increase in good supplies and a richer and more varied diet. Cotton would prove to be the
most important of the new crops. Increased trade and agricultural production fostered the rapid urban
growth of cities like Delhi, Isfahan, Baghdad, Damascus, Jerusalem, Cairo, and Cordoba. Industrial
production, most notably of paper, was part of this general expansion. Muhammad’s admiration for
merchants only helped to promote the creation of this huge trading zone. Maritime trade, bolstered by the
use of the compass, astrolabe, and lateen sail, also expanded. Banking and innovations in business
organization provided the capital for trade. Even distant Spain, known as al-Andalus, shared in the
prosperity. Cordoba quickly became one of the great Islamic cities of the world.
The status of women fluctuated during this period in the Islamic world. Although undeniably
members of a patriarchal society, Arab women had enjoyed the right to inherit property or engage in
business dealings. The Quran presented women as honorable individuals and had outlawed female
infanticide. At the same time, the Quran, and especially the sharia, stressed male dominance. Men
determined the nature and extent of the social and sexual lives of women. If anything, Islam’s expansion
into Mesopotamia and Persia brought even greater patriarchal influences, most notably veiling .
Islamic Values and Cultural Exchanges
In the face of an increasingly cosmopolitan Islamic world, the Quran and the sharia promoted
cultural unity. Officials such as the ulama and qadis and institutions of higher education like the madrasas
attempted to do the same thing. The Sufis, with their emphasis on an emotional and mystical rather than
intellectual connection to Allah, served as effective missionaries. Sufi thinkers like al-Ghazali stressed that
the human intellect was too weak to truly understand Allah. A more heartfelt devotion was the key. The
hajj, by bringing pilgrims from all over the Islamic world to Mecca, also created a sense of unity.
While Muslims spread the faith to distant lands, they were also influenced by other cultures. The
Persian influence comes through most clearly in literature, poetry, history, and political theory. The
Arabian Nights and Omar Khayyam’s Rubaiyat were very popular in the Islamic world. Indian innovations
in mathematics, science, and medicine passed through the Islamic world and on into Europe. Greek
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philosophy, including Plato and most notably Aristotle, provided an intellectual challenge for Islamic
thinkers. In turn, Ibn Rushd’s work on Aristotle shaped the rise of European scholasticism. Muslim
scholars also further developed Greek mathematics, science, and medicine.
ISSUES FOR DISCUSSION
Unfortunately, the media has created a very misleading and one-sided image of the Islamic world
today. Not surprisingly, most students adopt the simplistic view of the prevalence of Islamic
fundamentalism. This chapter provides a golden opportunity to discuss the toleration usually associated
with the Islam. This tolerance can be demonstrated in Muhammad’s philosophy and in the Quran. The
notion of Jews and Christians as “peoples of the book” is a key concept. Even Muhammad’s role as the
“final prophet” pays homage to the role played by earlier prophets such as Moses and Jesus. The decision
by the early caliphs of the Umayyad and Abbasid dynasty to allow conquered peoples to practice their own
religions is representative of a general tolerance that runs throughout Islamic history. Even the institution
of the jizya pales in comparison to the treatment usually allotted to members of differing religious groups.
Ask the students to consider the question of toleration and to bring in examples to back their arguments
from the chapter. This discussion provides students with another chance to study the Quran.
By this point in the course the students have come into contact with a wide variety of religions:
Hinduism; Buddhism; Christianity, both Roman Catholic and Greek Orthodox; Zoroastrianism; Judaism;
the polytheistic pantheons of the Egyptians and Mesopotamians, and so on. Ask the students to compare
and contrast Islam to the religions they have studied so far. The students should be able to bring in
examples from Judaism and Christianity. Provide excerpts from the Quran and compare them to similar
stories and characters from the Old or New Testament. This exercise can be enlightening because the
students tend to recognize Judaism and Christianity as coming from the same tradition but almost routinely
view Islam as a separate entity. A discussion of the perplexing divine nature of Jesus can show the students
that, at least in this case, Judaism and Islam have more in common. Now ask the students to compare Islam
to some of the other religions. Is there some common message in all religions? Is there an essential human
need to understand the divine?
The role that Muhammad played as a reformer would be a good topic to discuss. It is very easy
for students to view Muhammad in a present-minded fashion and thus incorrectly perceive many of the
basic tenets of Islam as repressive. While there is always a potential for students to be anachronistic or
xenophobic, it seems to be a real danger with American students in this subject because of a simplistic view
of the Islamic world. Bring up the fluctuating status of women in the Islamic world. The authors of the
text do a good job explaining the status of women in the Arabic world before Islam and the role that
Muhammad played in this changing process. They also explain how Islamic law became more patriarchal
as Muslims came into greater contact with the Persian and Mesopotamian worlds. Ask the students to
consider in what ways Muhammad brought about societal change. Then follow this question up by
centering on the role of women. Finally, ask the students to consider what Muslims might think about the
position of women in Europe and the United States.
LECTURE STRATEGIES
An understanding of the Five Pillars of Islam is essential. This understanding is a great starting
point for more detailed examinations of certain topics. What are the social implications of the Five Pillars?
This question can lead to a discussion of giving alms to the poor, alms not to be confused with charity.
Discuss different meanings of the term jihad and connect the discussion to the current situation in the
world. Show how the Five Pillars might have created a sense of unity in the increasingly cosmopolitan dar
al-Islam. As the Islamic world spread from India to Spain it was necessary to create a sense of
community—to bring Muslims from many lands into the umma. From here you can bring in the
importance of the sharia to reinforce the point. Show how hajj strengthens a sense of unity of all Muslims.
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Finally, bring in examples of factors that brought tensions to the Islamic world. The debate over the line of
succession of the caliphate and the resulting split between Sunni and Shia is an important concept for the
students to grasp. The works of the historian Tabari might prove useful here as an early account of the
Umayyad and Abbasid periods.
The life of Muhammad is a natural topic for discussion. In this case historians are lucky because
Muhammad may be the most historical of the influential founders of world religions in that we know much
more about him than about the founders of Hinduism, Buddhism, Judaism, or Christianity. Many stories,
although some probably apocryphal, have survived about his life. The picture that comes through is that of
a very human individual. It is this human nature that the students have to understand. Islamic thought, by
definition, would not accept a divine nature for Muhammad (which is why Muslims hated Europeans using
the term Muhammadan to describe a follower of Islam—the emphasis has to be on Allah and not on
Muhammad). It is very common for students, when grappling with a complex subject such as Islam, to try
and equate historical figures, for example, Muhammad played the same role as Jesus so Muhammad must
be the same as Jesus. The students must be made to see the distinction. The complexity of Jesus’ human
and divine natures has led to endless debate over the years, as the students have already seen with the
earlier discussion of the Arians. This knowledge will allow the students to see how Muhammad could
praise Jesus as a prophet but forcefully reject his divine nature. It also allows you to discuss Muhammad’s
role as the “seal of the prophets.” Finally, the wealth of information about Muhammad and his world can
allow for some insightful discussion about how economic and societal conditions can influence intellectual
and religious thought. The detailed discussion in the Quran about the rights of orphans mirrors
Muhammad’s own life experiences. For that matter, the picture of Noah in the Quran as a frustrated
prophet whom no one will listen to is similar to Muhammad’s early preaching career. It is important for
the students understand that the Quran is seen by the Muslims as a word of God.
The excitement and piety of the hajj provides you with an excellent opportunity to bring in films
or slides or images from the Internet. It is impossible for students to see pictures of the pilgrimage to
Mecca without getting a sense of the rich multicultural heritage of Islam. You can then discuss the hajj as a
means of creating unity out of this extraordinary diversity. It paints the picture of a teeming, complex
series of diverse societies with only Islam in common. With this opening, you can then backtrack to
demonstrate how the expansive Islamic world was created. In doing this, stress that when societies
converted to Islam they gained far more than simply a monotheistic view of Allah. They also became heirs
to a sophisticated philosophical, legal, and social system. Indirectly, they would later come into contact
with traditions from Greece, Persia, and India. This contact formed a link with the cultural world of Islam.
Examples from Ibn Rushd would work to draw an intellectual connection from the Greeks through the
Islamic world and eventually into Europe. Use examples from Omar Khayyam’s Rubaiyat and The
Arabian Nights to demonstrate connections to Sufi and Indian traditions, respectively.
GROUP ACTIVITIES
1.
Go to a website that has a map showing the areas of the world with a majority Islamic population.
Speculate about how Islam spread from its realm in the eighth century to those locations.
2.
The text lists the new crops that were introduced to the Islamic world by travelers along the trade
routes: sugarcane, rice, sorghum and wheat, spinach, artichokes, eggplant, oranges, lemons, limes,
bananas, coconuts, watermelons, and mangoes. Now locate some Arabic, Middle Eastern, and
North African recipes. What common dishes use those ingredients?
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SUGGESTIONS FOR RESOURCES
Besides the works cited in the chapter bibliography, you might find the following books helpful:
Ahmad, Leila. Women and Gender in Islam: Historical Roots of a Modern Debate.
Armstrong, Karen. A History of God: The 4000-Year Quest of Judaism, Christianity, and Islam.
Armstrong, Karen. Muhammad: A Biography of the Prophet.
Baldick, Julian. Mystical Islam: An Introduction to Sufism.
Beeston, A .F. S. Arabic Literature to the End of the Umayyad Period.
Busse, Heribert. Islam, Judaism, and Christianity: The Theological and Historical Affiliations.
Chaudhuri, K. N. Asia Before Europe: Economy and Civilization of the Indian Ocean from the Rise of
Islam to 1750.
Cobb, Paul. White Banners: Contention in Abbasid Syria, 750–880.
Denny, Frederick Mathewson. An Introduction to Islam.
Ettinghausen, Richard. The Art and Architecture of Islam: 650–1250.
Hawting, G. R. The First Dynasty of Islam: The Umayyad Caliphate.
el-Hibri, Tayeb. Reinterpreting Islamic Historiography: Harun al-Rashid and the Narrative of the Abbasid
Caliphate.
Holt, P. M. (ed.). The Cambridge History of Islam.
Lewis, Bernard W. The Middle East: A Brief History of the Last 2,000 Years.
Lippman, Thomas. Understanding Islam: An Introduction to the Muslim World.
Madelung, Wilferd. The Succession to Muhammad: A Study of the Early Caliphate.
Momen, Moojan. An Introduction to Shi’I Islam: The History and Doctrines of Twelver Shi’ism.
Peters, F. E. The Hajj: The Muslim Pilgrimage to Mecca and the Holy Places.
Peters, F. E. A Reader on Classical Islam.
Rosenthal, Franz and Emile Marmorstein. The Classical Heritage in Islam.
Sells, Michael Anthony (ed.). Early Islamic Mysticism, Sufi, Quran, Mirau, Poetic, and Theological
Writings.
Stierlin, Henri. Islam: Early Architecture from Baghdad to Jerusalem and Cordoba.
Stetkevych, Jaroslav. Muhammad and the Golden Bough: Reconstructing Arabian Myth.
Tabari, C. E. Bosworth (tr.). The Abbasid Caliphate in Equilibrium;
Wightman, G. B. H. Birds through a Ceiling of Alabaster: Arab Poetry of the Abbasid Period.
Wyatt, Thomas. The Koran.
Young, M. J. L. and J. D. Latham. Religion, Learning, and Science in the Abbasid Period.
The following films from the Films for the Humanities and Social Sciences should prove useful:
The Bridge: How Islam Saved Western Medicine; The Hajj: The Pilgrimage; Islam: Sacrifice to Allah;
Mosque; The Five Pillars of Islam; I Am a Sufi, I Am a Muslim; The Image of God; Islam; Islamic Art;
Islamic Science and Technology.
The following films from Insight Media should prove useful: Islam: The Faith and the People;
The Torchbearers: Bridging the Dark Ages; The Wonders of Islamic Science.
The following selections from the McGraw-Hill PRIMIS World Civilization Document Database
should prove useful: Quran; Flood Stories (a. Epic of Gilgamesh; b. Old Testament; c. Quran); Rumi,
Selected Poetry; Omar Khayyam, Rubaiyat; Ibn Khaldun, Muqaddimah; Ibn Battuta, The Travels of Ibn
Battuta.
FILMS
Hajj 2000. A Journey of Faith.
Islam: Empire of Faith. PBS Home Video.
The Message (Story of Islam) (1976). The story of Muhammad and the early spread of the religion of
Islam. With Anthony Quinn and Irene Papas.
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