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Chapter 1 and Chapter 2 Introduction to Science and basic chemistry INTRODUCTION 3 Main groups of living things 1. Eukarya More complicated than the last two groups Animals and plants are examples of this group 2. Bacteria- some can make you sick 3. Archaea- similar to bacteria, harmless 4 KINGDOMS of Eukarya These are the 4 subgroups of Eukarya ANIMALS- HUMANS, FLIES PLANTS- TREES, FLOWERS FUNGI- MILDEW AND MOLD PROTISTA- POND SCUM, AMOEBA STEPS OF THE SCIENTIFIC METHOD ACCUMULATE DATA- collect info. FORM A HYPOTHESIS- A TESTABLE STATEMENT, AN EDUCATED GUESS EXPERIMENT AND OBSERVE COLLECT NEW DATA FORM A CONCLUSION and RETEST if hypothesis is incorrect PROPER EXPERIMENTS HAVE A CONTROL (PLACEBO) CONTROL- ELIMINATES VARIABLES New medications are tested by giving some volunteers a placebo (sugar pill). The volunteers think they are getting the real medication. The volunteers are asked how they feel after taking the placebo and these results are compared to those of the people that are taking the actual medication Basics of Chemistry THE CHEMISTRY OF LIFE ELEMENTS BASIC SUBSTANCES THAT CANNOT BE BROKEN DOWN FURTHER INTO SIMPLER SUBSTANCES 92 NATURALLY OCCURRING 90% OF THE BODY IS COMPOSED OF THE ELEMENTS CARBON, OXYGEN AND HYDROGEN ATOM THE SMALLEST WHOLE UNIT OF AN ELEMENT ATOMS HAVE 3 PARTICLES NUCLEUS- WITH PROTONS (+) AND NEUTRONS (NO CHARGE) ELECTRONS- ORBIT THE NUCLEUS, (-)NEGATIVE CHARGE, NO WEIGHT ISOTOPES ATOMS WITH THE SAME NUMBER OF PROTONS (THEY ARE ALL THE SAME ELEMENT), BUT A DIFFERENT NUMBER OF NEUTRONS C-12, C-13, C-14 RADIOACTIVE ISOTOPESUNSTABLE AND DECAY (BREAK DOWN OVER TIME) C-14 DATING USED TO DETERMINE THE AGE OF MANY FOSSILS HALF-LIFE= THE AMOUNT OF TIME IT TAKES HALF OF THE RADIOISOTOPES TO DECAY AWAY C14 HALF LIFE IS ABOUT 6000 YEARS GROUPS OF ATOMS COMPOUND- 2 OR MORE DIFFERENT TYPES OF ATOMS BONDED TOGETHER EXAMPLES WATER- H20 CARBON DIOXIDE- CO2 TABLE SALT- NaCl FORMING BONDS ATOMS WILL FORM BONDS IN ORDER TO HAVE A FULL OUTER SHELL OF ELECTRONS ATOMS ARE UNHAPPY IF THEY DON’T HAVE A FULL OUTER ELECTRON SHELL ATOMS CAN GET A FULL OUTER SHELL BY DONATING,ACCEPTING OR SHARING ELECTRONS BONDS IONIC BOND- AN ATTRACTION BETWEEN 2 ATOMS CAUSED WHEN ONE ATOM DONATES ELECTRONS TO THE OTHER, THE OPPOSITE CHARGES PRODUCED BY THIS DONATION ATTRACT EACH OTHER TABLE SALT- NaCl COVALENT BOND FORMED WHEN ATOMS SHARE ELECTRONS WATER- H2O MOLECULE- 2 OR MORE ATOMS JOINED BY COVALENT BONDS IMPORTANT MOLECULES WATER POLAR AS A RESULT OF OXYGEN CRAVING THE SHARED ELECTRONS AND GETTING THEM MORE THAN ONE THRID OF THE TIME HAS 2 POSITIVE ENDS AND NEGATIVE END HYDROGEN BONDS- WEAK ATTRACTIONS BETWEEN WATER MOLECULES UNIQUE PROPERTIES GOOD BIOLOGICAL SOLVENT FOR POLAR SOLUTE SOLVENT- WATER SOLUTES- TEA AND SUGAR POLARITY CAUSES SOLUTE TO “STICK” TO THE ENDS OF THE WATER MOLECULES COHESIVE STICKS TO ITSELF AND MIXES WELL WITH OTHER POLAR CHEMICALS GOOD MEDIUM FOR TRANSPORT BLOOD IS WATER BASED PROTEINS, SUGARS AND SALTS ARE DISSOLVED IN THE BLOOD HIGH HEAT CAPACITY WATER RESISTS TEMPERATURE CHANGE HEAT= WIGGLING MOLECULES HYDROGEN BONDS INHIBIT WIGGLING, THEY MUST BE BROKEN FOR THE MOLECULES TO WIGGLE A LOT COOLING- BONDS REFORM VAPORIZATION EVAPORATION USED TO COOL OUR BODY THE MOLECULES WITH THE GREATEST HEAT (HIGHEST SPEED) ARE THE ONES THAT ESCAPE ICE FLOATS FROZEN WATER IS LESS DENSE AS WATER FREEZES, THE MOLECULES ORGANIZE THEMSELVES SO THAT ALL THE POLES ARE ALIGNED THIS TAKES UP MORE SPACE AND SPREADS THEM OUT ACIDS AND BASES WATER DISSOCIATES (TEMPORARILY COMES APART) INTO ITS H+ AND OHCOMPONENTS. ACID- HAS MORE H+ BASES- MORE OHIF A BASE IS MIXED WITH AN ACID, THE EXTRA OH- WILL COMBINE WITH H+ TO FORM WATER pH SCALE MEASURES ACIDITY OR ALKALINITY 0-14 0- ACID= LOTS OF H+ 14- BASIC= LOTS OF OH 7= NEUTRAL CHEMICAL REACTIONS... ARE FUSSY! OFTEN REQUIRE A SPECIFIC pH IN ORDER TO OCCUR BUFFERS HELP MODERATE pH CHANGES IN OUR BODIES ACID RAIN NORMAL RAINWATER HAS A pH OF 5.6 SLIGHTLY ACID BECAUSE OF CARBON DIOXIDE DISSOLVED IN IT DRINKING A SODA QUICKLY CAUSES YOUR MOUTH TO BURN BECAUSE OF THE CARBON DIOXIDE MIXED WITH THE WATER SOME LAKES IN NORTH-EASTERN U.S. AND CANADA- HAVE pH OF 5.0 AND 4.0 CAUSE AIR POLLUTION NITROGEN OXIDES + WATER= NITRIC ACID SULFUR OXIDES + WATER= SULFURIC ACID PROBLEM IN LAKES WHERE LIMESTONE BEDROCK IS NOT PRESENT SOLUTIONS LOWER EMISSIONS FORM AUTOS BURNING LOW SULFUR COAL ORGANIC COMPOUNDS CONTAIN CARBON AND HYDROGEN BIOLOGICAL CHEMICALS CAN BE COMPLEX OR SIMPLE COMPLEX FORMS ARE OFTEN MERELY REPEATING UNITS MONOMER- BASIC UNIT POLYMER- MANY MONOMERS CONNECTED TOGETHER- 4 GROUPS 1. CARBOHYDRATES STORE ENERGY MONOMER- MONOSACCHARIDE EX- GLUCOSE- 6 CARBONS DISACCHARIDES- 2 HOOKED TOGETHER- SUCROSE- TABLE SUGAR CONDENSATION SYNTHESIS USED TO CONNECT MONOMERS Condensation = Dehydration HYDROLYSIS USED TO TAKE POLYMERS APART MUST INSERT WATER POLYMERS= POLYSACCHARIDES GLYCOGEN, STARCH AND CELLULOSE ALL 3 ARE MADE OF MANY GLUCOSE MOLECULES CONNECTED TOGETHER CELLULOSE- INDIGESTIBLE (FIBER) ITS CONNECTIONS ARE NOT AFFECTED BY HUMAN ENZYMES 2. LIPIDS DO NOT DISSOLVE IN WATER BECAUSE THEY ARE NON-POLAR GLYCEROL (MONOMER) + 3 FATTY ACIDS (MONOMER) = TRIGLYCERIDE (POLYMER) FUNCTIONS= ENERGY STORAGE, INSULATION, CUSHION SATURATED VS. UNSAT. SATURATED FATS- SATURATED WITH HYDROGENS, ANIMAL FATS, SOLID AT ROOM TEMPERATURE, BAD FOR YOU UNSATURATED- HAS DOUBLE BONDS (NOT AS MANY HYDROGENS), VEGETABLE FATS, LIQUID AT ROOM TEMP, NOT AS BAD SOAPS ARE NOT FATS... ... BUT THEY ARE IMPORTANT THEY HAVE A POLAR AND A NONPOLAR END AND ACT LIKE A BRIDGE THE POLAR END STICKS TO WATER AND THE NON POLAR END STICKS TO FATS THIS HELPS FATS TO “DISSOLVE” IN WATER PHOSPHOLIPIDS CELL MEMBRANES ARE COMPOSED OF THESE MOLECULES HAVE A PHOSPHATE THAT MAKES ONE END WATER SOLUBLE WHEN PLACED IN WATER, THE NONPOLAR (HYDROPHOBIC) ENDS “HUDDLE” TOGETHER AND FORM A DOUBLE LAYER 3. PROTEINS MONOMER= AMINO ACIDS -THERE ARE 20 DIFFERENT TYPES ALL HAVE IDENTICAL “CORES” BUT A DIFFERENT CHEMICAL SIDE CHAIN PEPTIDE BONDS LINK AMINO ACIDS TOGETHER HYDROLYSIS- BREAKS THE BOND CONDENSATION- MAKES IT POLYPEPTIDE CHAIN OF AMINO ACIDS HOOKED TOGETHER BY PEPTIDE BONDS DNA HOLDS THE RECIPIE FOR THE ORDER OF THE DIFFERENT AMINO ACIDS IN EACH PROTEIN THE LINKS OF THE CHAIN INTERACT WITH OTHERS UPSTREAM AND DOWNSTREAM TO CAUSE FOLDING AND COILING (SPIRAL OR SHEET) -THIS IS SECONDARY STRUCTURE FOLDING AND COILING... THE VARIOUS SHEETS AND COILS INTERACT WITH EACH OTHER TO FORM A MORE COMPLEX FOLDING THIS IS CALLED TERTIARY STRUCTURE SHAPE IS VERY IMPORTANT TO SOME PROTEIN’S FUNCTION - EX. ENZYMES ARE THE CELL’S TOOLS ENZYMES CARRY OUT VARIOUS CHEMICAL REACTIONS EX. AMYLASE- PRESENT IN SALIVA, BREAKS DOWN STARCH EXTREME HEAT AND pH CAN AFFECT THE SHAPE- HEAT CHANGES EGGS WHEN COOKED DENATURED- LOOSES SHAPE PROTEIN IN THE BODY ENZYMES MUSCLES KERATIN- SKIN, WATERPROOF CONNECTIVE TISSUE- TENDONS, LIGAMENTS, CARTILAGE HAIR 4. NUCLEIC ACIDS DNA AND RNA GENETIC STORAGE MATERIAL THE BLUEPRINT FOR THE CELL WRITTEN IN A CHEMICAL LANGUAGE DNA TELLS THE CELL HOW TO MAKE THE PROTEINS MONOMERS NUCLEOTIDES COMPOSED OF: SUGAR PHOSPHATE NITROGEN BASE 4 DIFFERENT BASES “LETTERS” OF THE GENETIC ALPHABET - DNA THE MONOMERS (NUCLEOTIDES) ARE LINKED TOGETHER TO FORM THE POLYMER= A STRAND OF DNA OR RNA RNA HAS DIFFERENT SUGAR THAN DOES DNA ATP NOT PART OF DNA OR RNA A MODIFIED NUCLEOTIDE HAS TWO EXTRA PHOSPHATE GROUPS IT SERVES AS THE CELLS ENERGY CURRENCY- THE MONEY THE CELL USES TO “PAY” FOR VARIOUS CHEMICAL REACTIONS