Download File - AP Psychology

States of
Consciousness
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How is Consciousness
Related to Other Mental
Processes?
Consciousness can take
many forms, while other
mental processes occur
simultaneously outside our
awareness
What Consciousness Does
For Us

Restricts our attention

Combines sensation with learning and memory

Allows us to create a mental model of the world
that we can manipulate
Some Early Definitions

Consciousness: All the sensations, perceptions,
memories, and feelings you are aware of at any
instant


Waking Consciousness: Normal, clear, organized,
alert awareness
Altered State of Consciousness (ASC): Changes
that occur in quality and pattern of mental
activity
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Levels of
Consciousness
Conscious
Preconscious
Unconscious
Levels of
Consciousness

Conscious –
Brain process of which we are aware

Nonconscious –
Brain process that does not involve conscious
processing (e.g. heart rate, breathing, control of
internal organs)
Levels of
Consciousness

Conscious –
Brain process of which we are aware

Nonconscious –
Brain process that does not involve conscious
processing (e.g. heart rate, breathing, control of
internal organs)
Levels of
Consciousness

Preconscious –
Information that is not currently in consciousness,
but can be brought into consciousness if attention
is called to it
Unconscious –
Many levels of processing that occur
without awareness
What Cycles Occur
in Everyday
Consciousness?
Consciousness changes in
cycles that correspond to our
biological rhythms and the
patterns of stimulation in our
environment
What Cycles Occur
in Everyday
Consciousness?

Daydreaming –
A common variation of
consciousness in which attention
shifts to memories, expectations,
desires, or fantasies and away from
the immediate situation
Sleep and Dreaming

Circadian rhythms –
Psychological patterns that repeat approximately every 24
hours

The sleep cycle involves:


REM sleep

Non-REM (NREM) sleep
REM-sleep deprivation leads to REM rebound
Sleep





Definition: Innate, biological rhythm
Microsleep: Brief shift in brain activity to
pattern normally recorded during sleep
Sleep Deprivation: Sleep loss; being deprived
of needed amounts of sleep
Sleep-Deprivation Psychosis: Confusion,
disorientation, delusions, and hallucinations
that occur because of sleep loss
Sleep Patterns: Daily rhythms of sleep and
waking
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The Function of Sleep

Possible functions of sleep include:
•
To conserve energy
•
To restore the body
(neurotransmitters, neuron sensitivity)
•
To build “neural nets” and flush out
useless information from the brain
The Need for Sleep
Over the years, the need for REM sleep
decreases considerably, while the need for
NREM sleep diminishes less sharply
Measuring Sleep Changes
Electroencephalograph (EEG):
Brain-wave machine; amplifies and
records electrical activity in the
brain
 Beta Waves: Small fast waves
associated with alertness and
awakeness
 Alpha Waves: Large, slow waves
associated with relaxation and
falling asleep

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Fig. 7.5 Changes in brain-wave patterns associated with various stages of sleep. Actually, most wave types
are present at all times, but they occur more or less frequently in various sleep stages.
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Stages of Sleep

Stage 1: Small, irregular waves produced
in light sleep (people may or may not say
they were asleep)
 Hypnic
Jerk: Reflex muscle contraction
Stage 2: Deeper sleep; sleep spindles
(short bursts of distinctive brain-wave
activity) appear
 Stage 3: Deeper sleep; Delta waves
appear; very large and slow
 Stage 4: Deepest level of normal sleep;
almost purely Delta waves

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Fig. 7.4 These Siamese twins share the same blood supply, yet one sleeps while the other is
awake. (Photo by Yale Joel, Life Magazine. © Time, Inc.)
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States of Sleep

Rapid Eye Movements (REM):
Associated with dreaming; sleep is
very light
Body is very still during REM sleep
 Lack of muscle paralysis during REM sleep
is called REM Behavioral Disorder



Non-REM (NREM) Sleep: Occurs during
stages 1, 2, 3, and 4; no rapid eye
movement occurs
Seems to help us recover from daily
fatigue
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Fig. 7.6 (a) Average proportion of time adults spend daily in REM sleep and NREM sleep. REM periods
add up to about 20 percent of total sleep time. (b) Typical changes in stages of sleep during the night.
Notice that dreams mostly coincide with REM periods.
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Sleep Disturbances

Insomnia: Difficulty in getting to sleep, frequent
nighttime awakenings, or waking too early


Sleeping pills exacerbate insomnia; cause decrease
in REM and Stage 4 sleep and may cause
dependency
Drug-Dependency Insomnia: Sleeplessness that
follows withdrawal from sleeping pills
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Types and Causes of
Insomnia

Temporary Insomnia: Brief period of
sleeplessness caused by worry, stress, and
excitement
 Avoid
fighting it and read a book, for
example, until you’re struggling to stay awake

Chronic Insomnia: Exists if sleeping
troubles last for more than three weeks
 Adopt
regular schedule; go to bed at the
same time each night, for example

Tryptophan: Amino acid (chemical) that
increases serotonin levels and therefore
leads to sleepiness
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Sleep Disturbances

Sleepwalking (Somnambulism): Occurs in NREM
sleep during Stages 3 and 4

Sleeptalking: Speaking while asleep; occurs in
NREM sleep
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Some Other Sleep
Disturbances


Nightmares: Bad dreams

Occur during REM sleep

May occur once or twice a month; brief and easily
(unfortunately) remembered
Imagery Rehearsal: Mentally rehearse the
changed dream before you go to sleep again;
may help to eliminate nightmares
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Night Terrors

Night Terrors: Total panic occurs; hallucinations
may occur

Occurs during Stage 4 sleep

Most common in childhood; may occur in adults

Not remembered
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Physiological Sleep
Problems

Narcolepsy: Sudden irresistible sleep
attacks


May suffer from catalepsy: Sudden,
temporary muscle paralysis leading to
complete body collapse
Sleep Apnea: Interrupted breathing
during sleep; cause of very loud
snoring

Apnea can be treated by
Surgery
 Weight loss
 Breathing mask

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Sudden Infant Death
Syndrome (SIDS; Crib
Death)

Sudden, unexplained death of healthy infant (infants
should sleep on back or on side to try to prevent)

Remember “Back to sleep”
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Fig. 7.7 Infants at risk for SIDS are often attached to devices that monitor breathing and heart rate during
sleep. An alarm sounds to alert parents if either pulse or respiration falters. SIDS rarely occurs after an infant
is 1 year old. Babies at risk for SIDS should be placed on their sides or on their backs. (Photo courtesy of
Healthdyne, Inc.)
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Dreams
Psychodynamic (Freudian) Theory:
Emphasizes internal conflicts, motives, and
unconscious forces
 Wish Fulfillment: Freudian belief that many
dreams are expressions of unconscious
desires


Much evidence to refute this
Dream Symbols: Images that have a deeper
symbolic meaning
 Activation-Synthesis Hypothesis: Dream
content may be affected by motor
commands in the brain that are not carried
out

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What Other Forms Can
Consciousness Take?

Hypnosis

Meditation

Psychoactive drug states
Hypnosis

Altered state of consciousness characterized by
intensely narrowed attention and increased
openness to suggestion

Mesmer: Believed he could cure diseases by
passing magnets over body; true “animal
magnetism” (“mesmerize” means to hypnotize)

Must cooperate to become hypnotized

Hypnotizability –
Degree to which an individual is responsive to
hypnotic suggestions
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© Dan Francis/Mardan Photography
Fig. 7.9 Arrange three chairs as shown. Have someone recline as shown. Ask him to lift slightly while you
remove the middle chair. Accept the applause gracefully! (Concerning hypnosis and similar phenomena,
the moral, of course, is “Suspend judgment until you have something solid to stand on.”)
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Hypnosis (cont.)

Hypnotic Susceptibility: How easily a person can
be hypnotized

Basic Suggestion Effect: Tendency of hypnotized
people to carry out suggested actions as though
they were involuntary
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Hypnosis Can’s and
Cannot’s

Hypnosis CAN
 Help
people relax
 Reduce pain
 Get people to make better progress in
therapy

Hypnosis CANNOT
 Produce
acts of superhuman strength
 Produce age regression
 Force you to do things against your will
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Stage Hypnosis


Simulation of hypnotic effects
Tricks of the Trade:
Waking Suggestibility: People on stage do not
want to spoil the act, so they will follow any
instruction
 Selection of Responsive Subjects: Any “volunteer”
who does not get hypnotized in the group on
stage and does not follow instructions is “thrown
off”
 The Hypnosis Label Disinhibits: On stage, once you
are “in a hypnotic trance,” your responsibility for
actions is removed; you can do whatever you
want!

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More Stage Hypnosis
“Tricks of the Trade”
Hypnotists as Director: Once they
are in a trance, the “volunteers”
are suddenly the show’s stars, and
they will act like it. The hypnotists
only need to direct them
 Stage Hypnotists Use Tricks: Stage
hypnosis is 50% deception and 50%
taking advantage of the situation
 Conclusion: Stage hypnotists
entertain; they rarely hypnotize

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Meditation

Meditation –
Form of consciousness change induced
by focusing on a repetitive behavior,
assuming certain body positions and
minimizing external stimulation
Psychoactive Drug States

Psychoactive drugs –
Chemicals that affect mental processes and
behavior by their effects on the nervous system
Hallucinogens
Opiates
Depressants
Stimulants
Sensory Deprivation (SD)

Any major reduction in amount or variety of
sensory stimulation

Benefits


Sensory enhancement

Relaxation

Changing habits
Benefits called REST: Restricted Environmental
Stimulation Therapy
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Fig. 7.10 A sensory isolation chamber. Small floatation tanks like the one pictured have been used by psychologists
to study the effects of mild sensory deprivation. Subjects float in darkness and silence. The shallow bodytemperature water contains hundreds of pounds of Epson salts so that the subjects float near the surface. Mild sensory
deprivation produces deep relaxation.
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Drugs and Altered States
of Consciousness

Psychoactive Drug: Substance capable of
altering attention, judgment, memory, time sense,
self-control, emotion, or perception

Stimulant: Substance that increases activity in
body and nervous system

Depressant: Substance that decreases activity in
body and nervous system
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Fig. 7.11 Spectrum and continuum of
drug action. Many drugs can de rated
on a stimulation-depression scale
according to their effects on the
central nervous system. Although
LSD, mescaline, and marijuana are
listed here, the stimulation-depression
scale is less relevant to these drugs.
The principal characteristic os such
hallucinogens is the mind altering
quality.
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Physical Dependence

Addiction based on drug tolerance and
withdrawal symptoms

Drug Tolerance: Reduction in body’s response to a
drug

Withdrawal Symptoms: Physical illness following
withdrawal of a drug
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Psychological
Dependence

Drug dependence based on psychological or
emotional needs

Drug is necessary to maintain comfort and wellbeing

Crave drug and its rewarding qualities
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Stimulants

Amphetamine: Synthetic stimulants that excite
nervous system


Dexedrine and Methamphetamine are two types of
stimulants
Amphetamine Psychosis: Loss of contact with
reality because of amphetamine use; user tends
to have paranoid delusions
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Cocaine

Central Nervous System stimulant derived from
leaves of coca plant; also used as local
anesthetic

From 1886-1906, Coca-Cola did indeed have
cocaine in it!

Highly addictive drug

Anhedonia (Inability to Feel Pleasure): Common
after cocaine withdrawal
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Designer Drugs


Chemically engineered version of an
existing drug; made to skirt drug laws
MDMA (Ecstasy): Chemically similar to
amphetamine; created by small
variations in the drug’s structure

Risks of using MDMA are unclear

May cause severe liver damage and fatal
heat exhaustion

Repeated use damages serotonergic
brain cells
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Caffeine


Most frequently used psychoactive drug in
North America; present in colas, chocolate,
coffee, tea
Causes tremors, sweating, talkativeness,
tinnitus, suppresses fatigue or sleepiness,
increases alertness
May be hazardous to pregnant women if used
excessively; may cause birth defects
 Caffeinism: Physiological dependence on
caffeine
 Symptoms: Insomnia, irritability, loss of appetite,
chills, racing heart, elevated body temperature

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Nicotine





Natural stimulant found mainly in
tobacco
In large doses may cause stomach
pain, vomiting, diarrhea, confusion,
tremors
Addictive
Smoking responsible for 97% of lung
cancer deaths in men, 74% in women
Sum: DON’T SMOKE; SMOKING KILLS
(SO DOES CHEWING TOBACCO)
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Sedatives

Barbiturates: Sedative drugs that depress
brain activity
 Seconal

and Amytal are two types
GHB (Gamma-Hydroxybutyrate): Central
Nervous System (CNS) depressant that
relaxes and sedates; combination of
degreasing solvent and drain cleaner
 Sedative
effects may result in nausea, loss of
muscle control, and either sleep or a loss of
consciousness
 Inhibits gag reflex, so some choke to death on
their own vomit
 Addictive and deadly
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Tranquilizers

Tranquilizers: Lower anxiety and
reduce tension
Valium, Xanax, Halcion, and Librium are
four types
 Rohypnol: Related to Valium; lowers
inhibitions and produces relaxation or
intoxication. Larger doses can induce
short-term amnesia and sleep



Date rape drug because it’s odorless and
tasteless (“Roofies”)
Drug Interaction: One drug
significantly enhances the effect of
another
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Alcohol

Ethyl Alcohol: Intoxicating element
in fermented and distilled liquors
 NOT
a stimulant but DOES lower
inhibitions
 Depressant

Binge Drinking: Consuming five or
more drinks in a short time, or four
or more for women
 Serious
sign of alcohol abuse
 May lead up to 10 percent loss of brain
power, especially memory
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Fig. 7.12 The behavioral
effects of alcohol are related
to blood alcohol content and
the resulting suppression of
higher mental function. Arrows
indicate the typical threshold
for legal intoxication in the
United States. (From Jozef
Cohen, Eyewitness Series in
Psychology, p. 44. Copyright
© by Rand McNally and
Company. Reprinted by
permission.)
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How a Drinking Problem
May Develop (Jellinek,
1960)

Initial Phase: Social drinker turns to alcohol to relieve
tension or feel good

Crucial Phase: Person begins to lose control over drinking

Chronic Phase: Person is now alcohol dependent
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Treatment for Alcohol
Abuse and Dependence

Detoxification: Withdrawal of the person from
alcohol; occurs in a medical setting and is tightly
controlled; oftentimes necessary before long-term
treatment begins
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Alcoholics Anonymous
(AA) and Alternatives

Alcoholics Anonymous (AA):
Worldwide self-help organization
composed of recovering
alcoholics; emphasizes admitting
powerlessness over alcohol usage
and wanting to recover
 Spiritual
component
 Free; around for over 70 years!

Rational Recovery, and Secular
Organizations for Sobriety (SOS):
Non-spiritual AA Alternatives
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Some Hallucinogens




Hallucinogen: Substance that alters or
distorts sensory perceptions
Lysergic Acid Diethylamide (LSD):
Hallucinogen that can produce
hallucinations and other psychotic
symptoms
Mescaline (Peyote) and Psilocybin
(Magic Mushrooms)
PCP (Angel Dust): Initially can have
hallucinogenic effects; also an
anesthetic and has stimulant and
depressant effects
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Marijuana (Pot)


Cannabis Sativa (Marijuana; Pot):
Leaves and flowers of the hemp plant

Active Chemical: THC

Effects: Relaxation, time distortion,
perceptual distortions

Psychologically, NOT physiologically,
addictive
Hashish: Resinous material scraped
from leaves of the hemp plant; higher
concentration of THC
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Fig. 7.13 This thin slice of a rat’s brain
has been washed with a radioactive
THC-like drug. Yellowish areas show
where the brain is rich in THC
receptors. In addition to the cortex, or
outer layer of the brain, THC
receptors are found in abundance in
areas involved in the control of
coordinated movement. Naturally
occurring chemicals similar to THC
may help the brain cope with pain and
stress. However, when THC is used
as a drug, high dosages can cause
paranoia, hallucinations, and
dizziness (Julien, 1998).
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Some Health Risks of Using
Marijuana
May cause precancerous changes
in lung cells
 May suppress immune system,
perhaps increasing risk of disease
 THC may cause a higher rate of
miscarriages
 Activity levels in the cerebellum are
lower than normal in pot users
 Pot may damage some of the
brain’s memory centers

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