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People of Greece
Early Laws
After the Dark Ages - About 1200-900 BC - and beginning at about 900 BC, the
Ancient Greeks had no official laws or punishments.
Murders were settled by members of the victim's family, who would then go and
kill the murderer.
This often began endless blood feuds.
It was not until the middle of the seventh century BC that the Greeks first began
to establish official laws.
Around 620 BC Draco, the lawgiver, set down the first known written law of
Ancient Greece. These laws were so harsh that his name gave rise to our
English word "Daconian" meaning an unreasonably harsh law.
Solon,an Athenian statesman and lawmaker, refined Draco's laws and is
credited with "democratizing" justice by making the courts more accessible to
citizens. Solon created many new laws that fit into the four basic categories of
Ancient Greek law. The only one of Draco's laws that Solon kept when he was
appointed law giver in about 594 BC was the law that established exile as the
penalty for homicide.
Homer
Homer was truly a mysterious poet of epic proportions. There is a myriad of
mysteries, incongruities, and discrepancies concerning the history of this perhaps
most famous poet. A man responsible for the first written literature is the main
claim to fame for Homer, with an extreme amount of people believing him to be
the first recorder of former oral, epic poems that served to entertain the ancient
Greeks. Homer is most famous for two writings that he composed. These two
poems, which coincide with each other to form a pre-quel and sequel duo, are
thought by some to have been the backbone of an ancient Greek youth's
education. They are the Iliad and Odyssey. The Iliad begins like its counterpart,
the Odyssey , in the fact that it begins in a style known as "in media res". This
Latin phrase literally translates to, in the middle of things, and this phrase
therefore defines the manner in which Homer begins his two epic poems, starting
in the middle of a story that he along the way proceeds to fill-in details for. The
main discrepancies over Homer's history include his place of birth, the time that
he lived, and the all-encompassing and lacking any solid theories, Homeric
Question. This question deals with the much broader-based inquiry into whether
there was actually a Homer that existed and who the person or persons were that
eventually were grouped by this name. This is by far the largest single mystery of
all for any historian, literary critic, or reader of Homer.
Phidias was the single greatest sculptor of Ancient Greece. He has many
pieces from the Parthenon in Greece that still remain intact. Below are two
examples of these pieces. Relish in their beauty.
A statue of Athena
Sophocles
Born in 495 B.C. about a mile northwest of Athens, Sophocles was to become one of the
great playwrights of the golden age. The son of a wealthy merchant, he would enjoy all
the comforts of a thriving Greek empire. He studied all of the arts. By the age of sixteen,
he was already known for his beauty and grace and was chosen to lead a choir of boys at
a celebration of the victory of Salamis. Twelve years later, his studies complete, he was
ready to compete in the City Dionysia--a festival held every year at the Theatre of
Dionysus in which new plays were presented.
Quick facts about Archimedes . . .
Born
About 287 BC in Syracuse, Sicily. At the time Syracuse was an independent
Greek city-state with a 500-year history.
Died
212 or 211 BC in Syracuse when it was being sacked by a Roman army. He
was killed by a Roman soldier who did not know who he was.
Education
Family
Probably studied in Alexandria, Egypt, under the followers of Euclid.
His father was an astronomer named Phidias and he was probably related to
Hieron II, the king of Syracuse. It is not known whether he was married or
had any children.
Inventions
Many war machines used in the defense of Syracuse, compound pulley
systems, planetarium, water screw (possibly), water organ (possibly), burning
mirrors (very unlikely).
Fields of
Science
Initiated
Hydrostatics, static mechanics, pycnometry (the measurement of the volume
or density of an object). He is called the "father of integral calculus."
Major
Writings
On plane equilibriums, Quadrature of the parabola, On the sphere and
cylinder, On spirals, On conoids and spheroids, On floating bodies,
Measurement of a circle, The Sandreckoner, On the method of mechanical
problems.
Place in
History
Generally regarded as the greatest mathematician and scientist of antiquity
and one of the three greatest mathematicians of all time (together with Isaac
Newton (English 1643-1727) and Carl Friedrich Gauss (German 1777-1855)).
Hippocrates was a Greek physician born in 460 BC on the island of Cos,
Greece. He became known as the founder of medicine and was regarded as the greatest
physician of his time. He based his medical practice on observations and on the study of
the human body. He held the belief that illness had a physical and a rational explanation.
He rejected the views of his time that considered illness to be caused by superstitions and
by possession of evil spirits and disfavor of the gods.
Hippocrates held the belief that the body must be treated as a whole and not just a series
of parts. He accurately described disease symptoms and was the first physician to
accurately describe the symptoms of pneumonia, as well as epilepsy in children. He
believed in the natural healing process of rest, a good diet, fresh air and cleanliness. He
noted that there were individual differences in the severity of disease symptoms and that
some individuals were better able to cope with their disease and illness than others. He
was also the first physician that held the belief that thoughts, ideas, and feelings come
from the brain and not the heart as others of him time believed.
Hippocrates traveled throughout Greece practicing his medicine. He founded a medical
school on the island of Cos, Greece and began teaching his ideas. He soon developed an
Oath of Medical Ethics for physicians to follow. This Oath is taken by physicians today
as they begin their medical practice. He died in 377 BC. Today Hippocrates is known as
the "Father of Medicine".
Euclid (ca. 325-ca. 270 BC)
Greek geometer who wrote the Elements , the
world's most definitive text on geometry. The book
synthesized earlier knowledge about geometry, and
was used for centuries in western Europe as a
geometry textbook. The text began with definitions,
postulates ("Euclid's postulates "), and common
opinions, then proceeded to obtain results by
rigorous geometric proof. Euclid also proved what is
generally known as Euclid's second theorem: the
number of primes is infinite. The beautiful proof
Euclid gave of this theorem is still a gem and is generally acknowledged to be one of
the "classic" proofs of all times in terms of its conciseness and clarity. In the Elements
, Euclid used the method of exhaustion and reductio ad absurdum. He also discussed
the so-called Euclidean algorithm for finding the greatest common divisor of two
numbers, and is credited with the well-known proof of the Pythagorean theorem.
Neither the year nor place of his birth have been established, nor the circumstances of
his death, although he is known to have lived and worked in Alexandria for much of
his life. In addition, no bust which can be verified to be his likeness is known.
Pythagoras of Samos
Born: about 569 BC in Samos, Ionia
Died: about 475 BC
Pythagoras of Samos is often described as the first
pure mathematician. He is an extremely important
figure in the development of mathematics yet we
know relatively little about his mathematical
achievements. Unlike many later Greek
mathematicians, where at least we have some of the
books which they wrote, we have nothing of
Pythagoras's writings. The society which he led,
half religious and half scientific, followed a code of
secrecy which certainly means that today
Pythagoras is a mysterious figure.
Pythagorean Theorem
Let's build up squares on the sides of a right triangle. The Pythagoras'
Theorem then claims that the sum of (areas of) the two small squares
equals (the area of) the large one.
In algebraic terms, a2 + b2 = c2 where c is the hypotenuse while a and b are
the sides of the triangle.
The theorem is of fundamental importance in the Euclidean Geometry
where it serves as a basis for the definition of distance between two points.
It's so basic and well known that, I believe, anyone who took geometry classes in high
school couldn't fail to remember it long after other math notions got solidly forgotten.
Socrates
Although Socrates (470-399 BCE) is the central figure of these
dialogues, little is actually known about him. He left no writings,
and what is known is derived largely from Plato and Xenophon.
Socrates was a stone cutter by trade, even though there is little
evidence that he did much to make a living. However, he did have
enough money to own a suit of armor when he was a hoplite in the
Athenian military. Socrates' mother was a midwife. He was
married and had three sons. Throughout his life he claimed to hear
voices which he interpreted as signs from the gods.
It appears that Socrates spent much of his adult life in the agora (or the marketplace)
conversing about ethical issues. He had a penchant for exposing ignorance, hypocrisy,
and conceit among among his fellow Athenians, particularly in regard to moral questions.
In all probability, he was disliked by most of them.
However, Socrates did have a loyal following. He was very influential in the lives of
Plato, Euclid, Alcibiades, and many others. As such, he was associated with the
undemocratic faction of Athens. Although Socrates went to great lengths to distinguish
himself from the sophists, it is unlikely that his fellow Athenians made such a distinction
in their minds.
Socrates is admired by many philosophers for his willingness to explore an argument
wherever it would lead as well as having the moral courage to follow its conclusion.
Plato
Born: 427 BC in Athens, Greece
Died: 347 BC in Athens, Greece
The Peloponnesian War was fought between Athens and Sparta
between 431 BC and 404 BC. Plato was in military service from
409 BC to 404 BC but at this time he wanted a political career
rather than a military one. At the end of the war he joined the
oligarchy of the Thirty Tyrants in Athens set up in 404 BC, one
of whose leaders being his mother's brother Charmides, but their
violent acts meant that Plato quickly left.
In 403 BC there was a restoration of democracy at Athens and Plato had great hopes that
he would be able to enter politics again. However, the excesses of Athenian political life
seem to have persuaded him to give up political ambitions. In particular, the execution of
Socrates in 399 BC had a profound effect on him and he decided that he would have
nothing further to do with politics in Athens.
Plato left Athens after Socrates had been executed and travelled in Egypt, Sicily and
Italy. In Egypt he learnt of a water clock and later introduced it into Greece. In Italy he
learned of the work of Pythagoras and came to appreciate the value of mathematics.
Plato's main contributions are in philosophy, mathematics and science. However, it is not
as easy as one might expect to discover Plato's philosophical views. The reason for this is
that Plato wrote no systematic treatise giving his views, rather he wrote a number of
dialogues (about 30) which are written in the form of conversations.
Aristotle
Born: 384 BC in Stagirus, Macedonia, Greece
Died: 322 BC in Chalcis, Euboea, Greece
Aristotle was born in Stagira in north Greece, the son of
Nichomachus, the court physician to the Macedonian royal
family. He was trained first in medicine, and then in 367 he was
sent to Athens to study philosophy with Plato. He stayed at
Plato's Academy until about 347 -- the picture at the bottom of
this page, taken from Raphael's fresco The School of Athens,
shows Aristotle and Plato (Aristotle is on the. right). Though a brilliant pupil, Aristotle
opposed some of Plato's teachings, and when Plato died, Aristotle was not appointed head
of the Academy.Whereas Aristotle's teacher Plato had located ultimate reality in Ideas or
eternal forms, knowable only through reflection and reason, Aristotle saw ultimate reality
in physical objects, knowable through experience. Objects, including organisms, were
composed of a potential, their matter, and of a reality, their form; thus, a block of marble
-- matter -- has the potential to assume whatever form a sculptor gives it, and a seed or
embryo has the potential to grow into a living plant or animal form. In living creatures,
the form was identified with the soul; plants had the lowest kinds of souls, animals had
higher souls which could feel, and humans alone had rational, reasoning souls. In turn,
animals could be classified by their way of life, their actions, or, most importantly, by
their parts.
Though Aristotle's work in zoology was not without errors, it was the grandest biological
synthesis of the time, and remained the ultimate authority for many centuries after his
death. His observations on the anatomy of octopus, cuttlefish, crustaceans, and many
other marine invertebrates are remarkably accurate, and could only have been made from
first-hand experience with dissection. Aristotle described the embryological development
of a chick; he distinguished whales and dolphins from fish; he described the chambered
stomachs of ruminants and the social organization of bees; he noticed that some sharks
give birth to live young -- his books on animals are filled with such observations, some of
which were not confirmed until many centuries later.
Aeschylus
The "Father of Tragedy," Aeschylus was born in 525 B.C. in the city
of Eleusis. Immersed early in the mystic rites of the city and in the
worship of the Mother and Earth goddess Demeter, he was once sent
as a child to watch grapes ripening in the countryside. According to
Aeschylus, when he dozed off, Dionysus appeared to him in a dream
and ordered him to write tragedies. The obedient young Aeschylus
began a tragedy the next morning and "succeeded very easily."
Aeschylus was the first dramatist to give dignity and meaning to tragedy.
Also, as his own producer and stage manager, he designed special
costumes for his actors; pioneered in the use of masks; enlarged the stage;
and was the first dramatist to have any sort of setting for his plays. Altogether, it is probable that
few men in the entire history of the theater, have had such far reaching effect on their chosen
profession as Aeschylus, Father of Greek Drama.
Herodotus
Dynasty XXVI
490-c. 431 B.C.E
Herodotus was a Greek historian in the fifth century B.C.E. His birth was around B.C.E.
References to certain events in his narratives suggest that he did not die until at least 431
B.C.E, which was the beginning of the Peloponesian War. In his later years, Herodotus
traveled extensively throughout the Eastern Mediterranean. There, he visited the Black
Sea, Babylon, Phoenicia, and Egypt. He is best known for his work entitled Histories.
Because of this, Cicero claimed him to be the Father of History. Histories is the story of
the rise of Persian power and the friction between Persia and Greece. The battles that are
described are the ones fought at Marathon, Thermopylae and Salamis. His story is the
historical record of events that happened in his own lifetime. The first Persian War took
place just before he was born, while the second happened when he was a child. This gave
him the opportunity to question his elders about the events in both wars to get the details
he wanted for his story.
Thucydides
Thucydides (between 460 and 455 BC), was an ancient Greek historian, and the author of
The History of the Peloponnesian War, which recounts the 5th century BC war between
Sparta and Athens. This work is widely regarded a classic, and represents the first work of
its kind.
Thucydides is generally regarded as one of the first true historians. Unlike his predecessor
Herodotus (often called "the father of history") who included rumors and references to
myths and the gods in his writing, Thucydides assiduously consulted written documents
and interviewed participants in the events that he records. Certainly he held unconscious
biases - for example, to modern eyes he seems to underestimate the importance of Persian
intervention - but Thucydides was the first historian who seems to be attempting to be
completely objective. By his discovery of historic causation he created the first scientific
approach to history.
Philip II of Macedon
[382-336 BCE; assassinated]
Macedonian king who created the military, political & cultural order that his
son, Alexander, used to transform the history of the eastern Mediterranean
& western Asia. Philip was himself personally responsible for reversing the
crumbling political power of Macedonia in the central Balkan peninsula
through his reorganization of the army & invention of the long pike [sarissa],
a weapon that gave his phalanx a formidable advantage over enemy forces.
Though initially regarded by Greeks as a barbarian, Philip--a master of
diplomacy as well as military tactics--became the self-appointed peacekeeper among the feuding city states of Greece. As champion of a Pan
Hellenic order, he forged a league to expel Persians from Greek cities in
western Asia Minor. Though Philip himself was killed before achieving that
goal, Alexander quickly turned his father's achievements & vision into a
whirlwind campaign that gave Macedonians control of the whole Persian
empire.