Download Biology 7 Study Guide – Exam #3

Biology 7 Study Guide – Exam #3
This is a list of general topics you should be prepared to answer questions on for each chapter. This guide
is NOT what you should study but rather is a guide to help organize your studying of the material listed.
Your actual studying should involve the Powerpoint slides, your notes and textbook. Keep in mind that you
will not be tested on material in the book that was not covered in class, and you should know the new
terminology for each chapter (see terms in bold type).
Chapter 45 (Hormones & the Endocrine System)
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the various types of signaling and the role of receptors
o endocrine, paracrine, autocrine, synaptic, neuroendocrine signaling
o difference between peptide, steroid and amine signaling molecules
o differences between water-soluble, insoluble hormones
concepts of signal transduction, negative and positive feedback
simple endocrine pathways vs endocrine cascades
tropic vs nontropic hormones
the roles of the following endocrine glands and the indicated hormones they produce
o hypothalamus – antidiuretic hormone (ADH), oxytocin, various releasing/inhibiting
hormones (e.g., gonadotropin releasing hormone, thyrotropin releasing hormone)
 posterior pituitary – stores, secretes ADH, oxytocin from hypothalamus
o anterior pituitary – follicle stimulation hormone (FSH), leutinizing hormone (LH),
adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH), thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH), prolactin,
growth hormone, melanocyte stimulating hormone
o thyroid gland – triiodothyronin (T3), thyroxine (T4), calcitonin
o parathyroid glands – parathyroid hormone
o adrenal medulla – epinephrine, norepinephrine
o adrenal cortex – glucocorticoids (cortisol), mineralocorticoids (aldosterone)
o pineal gland – melatonin
o ovaries – estrogens (estradiol), prolactins (progesterone)
o testes – androgens (testosterone)
specific hormone cascades (e.g., thyroid)
sample questions:
1. Describe or diagram the hormonal cascade leading to the release of thyroid hormones being sure to
indicate the source of each hormone and its role or effect.
2. Distinguish endocrine, paracrine and autocrine signaling.
Chapter 46 (Animal Reproduction)
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asexual vs sexual reproduction, advantages and disadvantages of each
o various modes of asexual reproduction (budding, fragmentation, fission,
parthenogenesis)
characteristics, examples of external vs internal fertilization
general roles of male (gamete production & delivery, hormone production), female reproductive
systems (gamete and hormone production, support of developing embryo/fetus)
human male reproductive system
o roles of each organ, structure
o process, timing of spermatogenesis
o hormonal control of spermatogenesis, androgen production
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human female reproductive system
o roles of each organ, structure
o process, timing of oogenesis
o events, hormonal control of the ovarian cycle
o events, hormonal control of the uterine cycle
human development
o key events and their location in female reproductive system
o hormonal control of labor, birth
various types of contraception and how they act in general
sample questions:
1. What is parthenogenesis and how does if differ from other types of asexual reproduction?
2. Describe the events of the ovarian cycle and indicate how this cycle is hormonally regulated.
Chapter 47 (Animal Development)
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examples of model organisms used to study animal development
events that occur during the process of fertilization
o acrosomal reaction
o membrane depolarization – fast block to polyspermy
o cortical reaction – slow block to polyspermy
o egg activation
the process of cleavage
o how it differs among animals (holoblastic vs meroblastic, radial vs spiral)
o how the cell cycle in cleavage essentially skips the growth stages (G1 and G2)
o what it accomplishes (partitioning cytoplasmic determinants among smaller cells)
o structures involved (morula, blastula/blastocyst, blasocoel)
the process of gastrulation
o what it accomplishes (establishes the 3 germ layers)
 organs, structures derived from endoderm, ectoderm, mesoderm
o how it varies among urchins, frogs, birds, mammals
 hypoblast, epiblast, primitive streak , trophoblast, inner cell mass, blastopore
o roles of each extraembryonic membrane - amnion, chorion, yolk sac, anllantois
process of organogenesis
o neurulation
o migration of neural crest cells, mesenchymal cells from somites
o mechanisms – modifying cytoskeleton, convergent extension, apoptosis, adhesion
molecules
o Hans Spemann’s organizer – dorsal lip of blastopore
o vertebrate limb formation (apical ectodermal ridge, zone of polarizing activity, sonic
hedgehog)
concepts of cell fate, determination, potency
o fate mapping by cell labeling, cell ablation
sample questions:
1. Describe how the neural tube is formed in vertebrates.
2. Indicate how polyspermy is prevented in animals.
Chapter 48 (Neurons, Synapses & Signaling)
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the general structure of neurons
3 stages of information processing – sensory input, integration, motor output
the concepts of membrane potential, resting potential, electrical potential, chemical potential
o how membrane potential is due to the combined effects of differences in charge and
differences in concentration across a membrane
o how an artificial resting potential can be produced by setting up different
concentrations of a salt (e.g., Na+Cl- or K+Cl-) on either side of a membrane that is
permeable to only one of the ions
how sodium-potassium pumps, sodium channels and potassium channels contribute to the
resting potential
the concepts of graded potential, action potential, hyperpolarization, depolarization
how an action potential is triggered and what happens during an action potential
o voltage gated ion channels, rising phase, falling phase, refractory period
o how an action potential progresses away from the axon hillock
the role of myelin sheaths (Schwann cells, oligodendrocytes) in producing nodes of Ranvier
which increase the rate of action potential conduction (saltatory conduction)
the structure of a synapse and the nature of signaling across a synapse
o neurotransmitters, exocytosis, ligand-gated ion channels
o electrical vs chemical synapses
o combined effects of excitatory and inhibitory synapses
examples of each type of neurotransmitter
o acetylcholine, amino acids, biogenic amines, neuropeptides, gases
sample questions:
1. Describe how a negative resting potential is established in neurons with regard to Na + and K+ ions only.
2. Describe signaling is accomplished across a chemical synapse.
Chapter 49 (Nervous Systems)
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the variety of nervous systems found in the animal kingdom
the general roles of each type of glial cell – astrocyte, oligodendrocyte, Schwann cell, microglia,
ependymal cell, embryonic radial glial cell
organization of central nervous system (CNS), peripheral nervous system (PNS)
white matter vs gray matter
the process of a reflex
structure and function of the peripheral nervous system
o efferent vs afferent nerves
o the motor vs autonomic nervous system
o sympathetic vs parasympathetic divisions of the autonomic nervous system
 general effects of each on target organs
 location from which nerves for each division exit the CNS
 relative positions of sympathetic vs parasympathetic ganglia
structure and function of the vertebrate brain
o forebrain (olfactory perception, information processing)
 cerebrum – derived from embryonic telencephalon
 diencephalon which gives rise to thalamus, pineal gland, hypothalamus,
posterior pituitary
o midbrain – forms part of brainstem which routes sensory input
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hindbrain
 cerebellum
 non-midbrain portion of brainstem
 pons
 medulla oblongata
o control of sleep and arousal, circadian rhythms
o brain structure associated with emotions
o locations, roles of the four cerebral cortex lobes – frontal, temporal, parietal, occipital
 locations of somatosensory cortex, primary motor cortex
 general arrangement of body regions in each cortex
 roles in speech/language, locations of Broca’s area, Wernicke’s area
o lateralization of the brain – right vs left hemispheres, connection via corpus callosum
o general functions of the prefrontal lobe
concepts of neuronal plasticity and long term potentiation and their roles in learning
roles of the hippocampus in memory formation
the basic nature of following nervous system disorders – schizophrenia, Alzheimer’s disease,
Parkinson’s disease, depression, bipolar disorder, addiction
sample questions:
1. Distinguish the roles of Broca’s and Wernicke’s areas in speech and language and indicate the location
of each in the cerebral cortex.
2. Compare and contrast the sympathetic and parasympathetic divisions of the autonomic nervous
system.
Chapter 50 (Sensory & Motor Mechanisms)
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the concepts of sensory reception, transduction, transmission, integration and perception
how the frequency of action potentials relates to signal intensity
the 5 types of sensory receptors - mechanoreceptors, electromagnetic receptors,
chemoreceptors, thermoreceptors, pain receptors – and the type of energy each responds to
the sensation of sound (hearing) and equilibrium
o anatomy of the human outer, middle and inner ears and the roles of each structure
o how sound waves are transmitted to the cochlea then converted to action potentials
o how the cochlea detects volume and pitch of sound waves
o how auditory information is transmitted to the brain
o how the utricle, saccule and semicircular canals detect gravity and motion
o the function of the lateral line system in fish and amphibians
the sensation of light (visual perception)
o the variety of light sensing organs in the animal kingdom
o the anatomy of the vertebrate eye and roles of each structure
o how the photons of light are converted to action potentials in the retina
o the roles of rods and cones in light perception
o how visual information is transmitted to the brain
the basis of the sensation of taste (gustation)
the basis of the sensation of smell (olfaction)
skeletal muscle contraction
o skeletal muscle structure – muscle fibers, myofibrils, sarcomeres
 sarcomere structure – thin (actin) filaments, thick (myosin) filaments, Z lines
o the sliding filament model of muscle contraction
o the roles of tropomyosin, the troponin complex and calcium
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o how motor neuron stimulation controls muscle contraction
o the concept of a motor unit
o glycolytic vs oxidative fibers, slow-twitch vs fast twitch fibers
o how cardiac and smooth muscle differ from skeletal muscle
major bones in the human skeleton (see Figure 50.36)
sample questions:
1. Describe what happens in a sarcomere when skeletal muscle contracts.
2. Describe how the structure of the cochlea relates to the perception of pitch.
Extra credit article
“Hidden Switches in the Mind” by Eric Nestler, Scientific American, December 2011, pp. 76-83.