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The Good Life: Structure of a Definition Essay Bertrand Russell Paragraph One • Having a good life is an end, not a means, so he can’t support his thesis, he states here, with concrete evidence Explanation of paragraph one: • Russell identifies how his argument proceeds Example One: • Which is the better way to prevent crime? ( We would argue, using concrete evidence, which means better achieves the end.) Example Two • Means Ends • Prison preventing crime • Education (the end is a given; he assumes we agree on an ends but not necessarily a means) Example Two: • Is punishment valuable? • War is bad • Fighting is noble End punishment is bad punishment is good • (We can’t argue the means with evidence since the end is not a given since it is an ethical question); this cannot be tested with evidence Russell’s Argument • What makes a good life? • Inspired by love and guided by knowledge • (but we can’t scientifically prove this end since it is an ethical question) • His hope is that as many as possible will agree Paragraph 2 • We need both love and knowledge Love and Knowledge • Historical examples: • Holy men advise pestilence-filled town to gather and pray infection spread (love without knowledge) • The late war (WWI) many deaths (knowledge without love) • The end is the same: death Paragraph 3 • Love is more fundamental than knowledge • Why? Because people will seek knowledge to benefit those they love • Example: a doctor is more useful to a patient than a devoted friend • Therefore, progress in medical knowledge does more for a community than illinformed philanthropy Paragraph 4 • Defines the poles of love as delight and benevolence, and defines delight as aesthetic delight • For inanimate objects (like a landscape) we can only feel delight Paragraph 5 • Defines benevolence (well-wishing) • Desire for another person’s welfare • Opposite pole to delight • Example: sacrificing lives to help lepers (no aesthetic delight is involved) Paragraph 6 • Love at its best contains both poles plus understanding (which he defines as knowledge) • Parental love for child • Sexual love (when a feeling of security exists) Importance of knowledge: • “the person whose affection is satisfactory to us must not merely wish us well but must know in what our happiness consists” (29) • Therefore, knowledge is vital because the person who gives us affection must know what makes us happy Paragraph 7 • Delight has its limits • We shouldn’t try to force delight because we can’t feel delight in everything (eg. Fleas, bugs, lice) • Otherwise, we distort our view of beauty Paragraph 8 • Benevolence also has its limits • Human beings have animal instincts, animal vitality, a sense of competition • Eg. If two men are interested in the same woman they aren’t going to have completely benevolent feelings towards one another Paragraph 9 • Emphasizes delight as an ingredient in the best love • In a human world, we cannot feel delight toward everyone • Therefore, knowledge is important Paragraph 10 • He defines knowledge as scientific knowledge and knowledge of facts • He emphasizes that he is not talking of ethical knowledge: “I do not think there is, strictly speaking, such a thing as ethical knowledge” (29) Why knowledge? • We can only decide what sort of conduct is right or wrong by looking at the consequences • Scientific knowledge (hypothesis, experiment, conclusion) discovers the means to achieve an end • “All moral rules must be tested by examining whether they tend to realize ends that we desire” (30) All behaviour springs from desire • Not what we ought to desire • (eg. Parents, teachers, policemen) • Ethical notions influence desire (desire for approval and fear of disapproval) • Behaviour consequences: achieves social purposes we desire (approval) OR opposite behaviour (disapproval) Do you agree that all behaviour springs from desire? • Agree or disagree: You are in class because you desire to be here • What are the higher desires that drive you to come to class? • Do you ever desire things that are not good? • What are the possible consequences? Paragraph 11 • Human desire is the only moral standard • You can’t make people do what they don’t want to (you can alter their desires by reward and punishment) • Reward and punishment could be arranged (by lawmakers) to derive the maximum of what is desired Paragraph 12 • What distinguishes ethics from science is not special knowledge but desire • Certain ends are desired the right conduct achieves it • The end must be such as large sections of humankind desire it (majority rules!) Paragraph 13 • Argues that scientific knowledge helps us to help those we love to reach the ends they desire • If we understand those we love we will know what they desire • If we have enough knowledge we will know how to help them • If we love them, we will want to help them • If everyone does this, we will all lead good lives