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BIOLOGY CONCEPTS & CONNECTIONS Fourth Edition Neil A. Campbell • Jane B. Reece • Lawrence G. Mitchell • Martha R. Taylor CHAPTER 17 Plants, Fungi, and the Colonization of Land Modules 17.1 – 17.3 From PowerPoint® Lectures for Biology: Concepts & Connections Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings Plants and Fungi—A Beneficial Partnership • Mutually beneficial associations of plant roots and fungi are common – These associations are called mycorrhizae – They may have enabled plants to colonize land Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings • Citrus growers face a dilemma – They use chemicals to control disease-causing fungi – But these also kill beneficial mycorrhizae Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings 17.1 What is a plant? • Plants are multicellular photosynthetic eukaryotes – They share many characteristics with green algae – However, plants evolved unique features as they colonized land Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings PLANT LEAF performs photosynthesis CUTICLE reduces water loss; STOMATA allow gas exchange STEM supports plant (and may perform photosynthesis) Surrounding water supports the alga ROOTS anchor plant; absorb water and minerals from the soil (aided by mycorrhizal fungi) ALGA WHOLE ALGA performs photosynthesis; absorbs water, CO2, and minerals from the water HOLDFAST anchors the alga Figure 17.1A Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings • Unlike algae, plants have vascular tissue – It transports water and nutrients throughout the plant body – It provides internal support Figure 17.1B Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings PLANT EVOLUTION AND DIVERSITY 17.2 Plants evolved from green algae called charophyceans • Molecular studies indicate that green algae called charophyceans are the closest relatives of plants Figure 17.2A, B Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings • Cooksonia was one of the earliest vascular land plants Sporangia Figure 17.2C Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings 17.3 Plant diversity provides clues to the evolutionary history of the plant kingdom • Two main lineages arose early from ancestral plants Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings Gymnosperms (e.g., conifers) Seedless vascular plants (e.g., ferns, horsetails) Bryophytes (e.g., mosses) Charophyceans (a group of green algae) CENOZOIC MESOZOIC PALEOZOIC Radiation of flowering plants First seed plants Early vascular plants Origin of plants Figure 17.3A Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings • One lineage gave rise to bryophytes – These are plants that lack vascular tissue – Bryophytes include mosses, which grow in a low, spongy mat Figure 17.3B Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings • Vascular plants are the other ancient lineage • Ferns and seed plants were derived from early vascular plants and contain – xylem and phloem – well-developed roots – rigid stems Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings • Ferns are seedless plants whose flagellated sperm require moisture to reach the egg Figure 17.3C Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings • A major step in plant evolution was the appearance of seed plants – Gymnosperms – Angiosperms • These vascular plants have pollen grains for transporting sperm • They also protect their embryos in seeds Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings • Gymnosperms, such as pines, are called naked seed plants – This is because their seeds do not develop inside a protective chamber • The seeds of angiosperms, flowering plants, develop in ovaries within fruits Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings ALTERNATION OF GENERATIONS AND PLANT LIFE CYCLES 17.4 Haploid and diploid generations alternate in plant life cycles • The haploid gametophyte produces eggs and sperm by mitosis – The eggs and sperm unite, and the zygote develops into the diploid sporophyte – Meiosis in the sporophyte produces haploid spores, which grow into gametophytes Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings Gametophytes (male and female) n Spores n Meiosis Gametes (sperm and eggs) n HAPLOID Fertilization DIPLOID Zygote 2n Sporophyte 2n Figure 17.4 Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings 17.5 Mosses have a dominant gametophyte • Most of a mat of moss consists of gametophytes – These produce eggs and swimming sperm – The zygote stays on the gametophyte and develops into the less conspicuous sporophyte Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings 5 Mitosis and Sperm (n) (released from their gametangium) development Spores (n) 1 Gametangium containing the egg (n) (remains within gametophyte) Gametophytes (n) Egg HAPLOID Meiosis Fertilization DIPLOID Sporangium Stalk 2 4 Zygote (2n) Gametophyte (n) 3 Mitosis and development Sporophytes (growing from gametophytes) Figure 17.5 Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings 17.6 Ferns, like most plants, have a dominant sporophyte • Ferns, like mosses, have swimming sperm • The fern zygote remains on the small, inconspicuous gametophyte – Here it develops into the sporophyte Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings 5 Sperm (n) Mitosis and development Spores (n) 1 Gametophyte (n) (underside) Egg (n) HAPLOID Meiosis Sporangia Fertilization DIPLOID 2 4 Zygote (2n) 3 Mitosis and development Sporophyte (2n) New sporophyte growing out of gametophyte Figure 17.6 Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings 17.7 Seedless plants formed vast “coal forests” • Ferns and other seedless plants once dominated ancient forests – Their remains formed coal Figure 17.7 Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings • Gymnosperms that produce cones, the conifers, largely replaced the ancient forests of seedless plants – These plants remain the dominant gymnosperms today Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings 17.8 A pine tree is a sporophyte with tiny gametophytes in its cones • Sporangia in male cones make spores that develop into male gametophytes – These are the pollen grains • Sporangia in female cones produce female gametophytes Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings 4 Female gametophyte (n) Haploid spore cells in ovule develop into female gametophyte, which makes egg. 5 Male gametophyte (pollen) Egg (n) grows tube to egg and makes and releases sperm. Sperm (n) Male gametophyte (pollen grain) HAPLOID DIPLOID MEIOSIS Ovule Fertilization Scale Sporangium (2n) Seed coat 3 Pollination HAPLOID Pollen grains (male gametophytes) (n) Embryo (2n) Integument 1 Female cone bears ovules. 6 Zygote develops MEIOSIS into embryo, and ovule becomes seed. 2 Male cone produces spores by meiosis; spores develop into pollen grains Zygote (2n) 7 Sporophyte Seed Seed falls to ground and germinates, and embryo grows into tree. Figure 17.8 Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings 17.9 The flower is the centerpiece of angiosperm reproduction • Most plants are angiosperms – The hallmarks of these plants are flowers Pollen grains Anther Stigma CARPEL Ovary STAMEN PETAL Ovule SEPAL Figure 17.9A, B Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings 17.10 The angiosperm plant is a sporophyte with gametophytes in its flowers • The angiosperm life cycle is similar to that of conifers – But it is much more rapid – In addition, angiosperm seeds are protected and dispersed in fruits, which develop from ovaries Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings 2 Haploid spore in each Stigma Egg (n) ovule develops into female gametophyte, which produces egg. 3 Pollination Pollen grain and growth of pollen tube Ovule Pollen tube 1 Haploid spores in anthers develop into pollen grains: male gametophytes. Sperm Pollen (n) HAPLOID Meiosis Fertilization DIPLOID 4 Zygote (2n) Food supply Seed coat Seeds 7 Seed Ovary germinates, and embryo grows into plant. Ovule Sporophyte Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings 6 Fruit 5 Seed Embryo (2n) Figure 17.10 Figure 31.10 Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings BIOLOGY CONCEPTS & CONNECTIONS Fourth Edition Neil A. Campbell • Jane B. Reece • Lawrence G. Mitchell • Martha R. Taylor CHAPTER 31 Plant Structure, Reproduction, and Development Modules 31.1 – 31.4 From PowerPoint® Lectures for Biology: Concepts & Connections Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings PLANT STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION 31.2 The two main groups of angiosperms are the monocots and the dicots • Angiosperms, or flowering plants, are the most familiar and diverse plants • There are two main types of angiosperms – Monocots include orchids, bamboos, palms, lilies, grains, and other grasses – Dicots include shrubs, ornamental plants, most trees, and many food crops Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings • Monocots and dicots differ in seed leaf number and in the structure of roots, stems, leaves, and flowers SEED LEAVES LEAF VEINS STEMS FLOWERS ROOTS MONOCOTS One cotyledon Main veins usually parallel Vascular bundles in complex arrangement Floral parts usually in multiples of three Fibrous root system DICOTS Two cotyledons Main veins usually branched Vascular bundles arranged in ring Floral parts usually in Taproot multiples of four or five usually present Figure 31.2 Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings 31.3 The plant body consists of roots and shoots • Root system – Provides anchorage – Absorbs and transports minerals and water – Stores food • Root hairs increase the surface area for absorption Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings • Shoot system – Consists of stems, leaves, and flowers in angiosperms – Stems are located above the ground and support the leaves and flowers – Leaves are the main sites of photosynthesis in most plants Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings Terminal bud Blade Leaf Flower Petiole Axillary bud Stem SHOOT SYSTEM Node Internode Taproot ROOT SYSTEM Root hairs Figure 31.3 Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings • The terminal bud is located at the tip of a stem – It is the growth point of the stem • Axillary buds can give rise to branches • In apical dominance, the terminal bud produces hormones that inhibit the growth of axillary buds – This results in a taller plant that has greater exposure to light Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings 31.4 Many plants have modified roots and shoots • Roots and stems are adapted for a variety of functions – Storing food – Asexual reproduction – Protection • Plant breeders have improved the yields of root crops by selecting varieties, such as the sugar beet plant, with very large taproots Figure 31.4A Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings • Modified stems include STRAWBERRY PLANT – runners, for asexual reproduction Runner POTATO PLANT – rhizomes, for plant growth and food storage – tubers, for food storage in the form of starch Rhizome IRIS PLANT Rhizome Tuber Taproot Root Figure 31.4B Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings • Modified leaves include tendrils and spines – Tendrils help plants to climb – Spines may protect the plant from plant-eating animals Figure 31.4C Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings 31.6 Three tissue systems make up the plant body • Roots, stems, and leaves are made of three tissue systems Leaf Stem – The epidermis – The vascular tissue system – The ground tissue system Root Epidermis Ground tissue system Vascular tissue system Figure 31.6A Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings • The epidermis covers and protects the plant – The cuticle is a waxy coating secreted by epidermal cells that helps the plant retain water • The vascular tissue contains xylem and phloem – It provides support and transports water and nutrients Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings • The ground tissue system functions mainly in storage and photosynthesis – It consists of parenchyma cells and supportive collenchyma and sclerenchyma cells Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings • The ground tissue system of the root forms the cortex – The cortex consists mostly of parenchyma tissue • The selective barrier forming the innermost layer of the cortex is the endodermis Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings VASCULAR TISSUE SYSTEM Xylem Phloem Epidermis GROUND TISSUE SYSTEM Cortex Endodermis Figure 31.6B Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings • These microscopic cross sections of a dicot and a monocot indicate several differences in their tissue systems Figure 31.6C Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings • The three tissue systems in dicot leaves – The epidermis consist of pores called stomata (singular, stoma) flanked by regulatory guard cells Figure 31.6D Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings – The ground tissue system of a leaf is called mesophyll and is the site of photosynthesis Figure 31.6D Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings – The vascular tissue consists of a network of veins composed of xylem and phloem Figure 31.6D Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings PLANT GROWTH 31.7 Primary growth lengthens roots and shoots • Most plants exhibit indeterminate growth – They continue to grow as long as they live • In contrast, animals are characterized by determinate growth – They cease growing after reaching a certain size Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings • Annuals complete their life cycle in a single year or growing season – Examples: wheat, corn, rice, and most wildflowers • Biennials complete their life cycle in two years, with flowering occurring in the second year – Examples: beets and carrots • Perennials live and reproduce for many years – Examples: trees, shrubs, and some grasses Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings • Growth in all plants originates in tissues called meristems – Meristems are areas of unspecialized, dividing cells • Apical meristems are located at the tips of roots and in the terminal buds and axillary buds of shoots – They initiate primary growth, lengthwise growth by the production of new cells – Roots and stems lengthen further as cells elongate and differentiate Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings Terminal bud Axillary buds Arrows = direction of growth Root tips Figure 31.7A Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings Cortex Epidermis DIFFERENTIATION Vascular cylinder CELL DIVISION ELONGATION Root hair Cellulose fibers Apical meristem region Root cap Figure 31.7B Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings Leaves Apical meristem Axillary bud meristems 1 2 Figure 31.7C Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings 31.8 Secondary growth increases the girth of woody plants • An increase in a plant's girth results from secondary growth • Secondary growth involves cell division in two cylindrical meristems – Vascular cambium – Cork cambium Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings • Vascular cambium thickens a stem by adding layers of secondary xylem, or wood, next to its inner surface – It also produces the secondary phloem, which is a tissue of the bark • Cork cambium produces protective cork cells located in the bark Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings Figure 31.8A Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings • Everything external to the vascular cambium is considered bark – Secondary phloem – Cork cambium – Protective cork cells • Heartwood in the center of the trunk consists of older, clogged layers of secondary xylem • Sapwood consists of younger, secondary xylem that still conducts water Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings • A woody log is the result of several years of secondary growth Sapwood Rings Wood rays Heartwood Sapwood Vascular cambium Secondary phloem Bark Cork cambium Cork Heartwood Figure 31.8B Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings PLANT REPRODUCTION 31.9 Overview: The sexual life cycle of a flowering plant • The angiosperm flower is a reproductive shoot consisting of Anther Carpel Stigma Ovary – sepals – petals Stamen – stamen Ovule – carpels Sepal Petal Figure 31.9A Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings • Sepals are usually green and resemble leaves in appearance – Sepals enclose and protect the flower bud before the flower opens • Petals are often bright and colorful – They attract insects (pollinators) Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings • Stamens are the male reproductive organs of plants – Pollen grains develop in anthers, at the tips of stamens • Carpels are the female reproductive organs of plants – The ovary at the base of the carpel houses the ovule Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings • The life cycle of an angiosperm involves several stages Ovary, containing ovule Embryo Fruit, containing seed Seed Mature plant with flowers, where fertilization occurs Seedling Germinating seed Figure 31.9B Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings 31.10 The development of pollen and ovules culminates in fertilization • The plant life cycle alternates between diploid (2n) and haploid (n) generations • Double fertilization is unique to plants Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings Figure 31.10 Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings 31.11 The ovule develops into a seed • After fertilization, the ovule becomes a seed – The fertilized egg within the seed divides to become an embryo – The other fertilized cell develops into the endosperm, which stores food for the embryo • A resistant seed coat protects the embryo and endosperm Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings Triploid cell OVULE Zygote Two cells Cotyledons Endosperm Seed coat Shoot Embryo Root SEED Figure 31.11A Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings • Seed dormancy is an important evolutionary adaptation in which growth and development are suspended temporarily – It allows time for a plant to disperse its seeds – It increases the chance that a new generation of plants will begin growing only when environmental conditions favor survival Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings • Comparison between dicot and monocot seeds Seed coat Embryonic shoot Embryonic leaves Embryonic root Cotyledons COMMON BEAN (DICOT) Fruit tissue Cotyledon Seed coat Endosperm Embryonic leaf Embryonic shoot Sheath Embryonic root CORN (MONOCOT) Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings Figure 31.11B 31.12 The ovary develops into a fruit • The ovary develops into a fruit which helps protect and disperse the seeds Figure 31.12A Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings • There is a correspondence between flower and fruit in a pea plant – The wall of the ovary becomes the pod – The ovules develop into the seeds Upper part of carpel Ovule Seed Ovary wall Sepal Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings Pod (opened) Figure 31.12B – The small, threadlike structure at the end of the pod is what remains of the upper part of the flower's carpel – The sepals of the flower stay attached to the base of the green pod Upper part of carpel Ovule Seed Ovary wall Sepal Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings Pod (opened) Figure 31.12B • Simple fruits develop from a flower with a single carpel and ovary – Apples, pea pods, cherries • Aggregate fruits develop from a flower with many carpels – Raspberries • Multiple fruits develop from a group of flowers clustered tightly together – Pineapples Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings Figure 31.12C BIOLOGY CONCEPTS & CONNECTIONS Fourth Edition Neil A. Campbell • Jane B. Reece • Lawrence G. Mitchell • Martha R. Taylor CHAPTER 33 Control Systems in Plants Modules 33.1 – 33.5 From PowerPoint® Lectures for Biology: Concepts & Connections Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings PLANT HORMONES 33.1 Experiments on how plants turn toward light led to the discovery of a plant hormone • Hormones coordinate the activities of plant cells and tissues • The study of plant hormones began with observations of plants bending toward light – This phenomenon is called phototropism Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings Figure 33.1A • Phototropism results from faster cell growth on the shaded side of the shoot than on the illuminated side Shaded side of shoot Light Illuminated side of shoot Figure 33.1B Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings • Experiments carried out by Darwin and others showed that the tip of a grass seedling detects light and transmits a signal down to the growing region of the shoot Light Control Figure 33.1C Tip removed Tip covered by opaque cap Tip covered by transparent cap DARWIN AND DARWIN (1880) Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings Base covered by opaque shield Tip separated by gelatin block Tip separated by mica BOYSEN-JENSEN (1913) • It was discovered in the 1920s that a hormone was responsible for the signaling Darwin observed – This hormone was dubbed auxin – Auxin plays an important role in phototropism Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings Shoot tip placed on agar block. Chemical (later called auxin) diffuses from shoot tip into agar. Agar Control Block with chemical stimulates growth. Offset blocks with chemical stimulate curved growth. Other controls: Blocks with no chemical have no effect. NO LIGHT Figure 33.1D Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings 33.2 Five major types of hormones regulate plant growth and development • Hormones regulate plant growth and development by affecting – cell division – cell elongation – cell differentiation • Only small amounts of hormones are necessary to trigger the signal-transduction pathways that regulate plant growth and development Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings Table 33.2 Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings