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COASTAL AND MARINE CONSERVATION:
A NEW ZEALAND PERSPECTIVE
A thesis
submitted in partial fulfilment
of the requirements for the Degree
of
Master of Resource Management
in the
University of Canterbury
by
M.P. Jebson
University of Canterbury
1987
=
CONTENTS
CHAPTER
One
Two
PAGE
ABSTRACT
1
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
2
INTRODUCTION
TO
THE
RESOURCE.
1.0
Introduction
1.1
The Resource
1.2
The Problem
1.3
Current Stategies and Legislation
1.4
Study Objectives
1.5
Study Definitions.
CHARACTERISATION
MARINE
OF
3
NEW ZEALAND'S
ENIRONMENT
..
10
Summary
2.0
Marine and Coastal Ecosystems
2.1
The Open Ocean
2.2
The Coastal Zone: Productivity and Species Diversity
2.4
Marine Speciation
2.5
Currents and Circulation
2.5.1 'Sink', 'Down Stream' Affects and 'Short Circuits'.
2.6
(Trophic) Feeding Structures of Marine Systems
D
2.7 NEW ZEALAND'S COASTAL AND MARINE
ENVIRONMENT
2.7.1 Major Currents and Sea Temperatures
2.7.2 Classification of New Zealand's Marine Environment
2.7.3 Physical Topography
2.7.4 Biology of New Zealand's Marine Environment
2.7.5 Soft Shores and Mudflats
2.7.6 Hard Shores and Reefs
2.7.7 Continetal Shelf
2.7.8 Marine Fish
2.7.9
Marine Mammals
2.7.10 Sea and Wetland Birds
Three
CONFLICT
THE NATURAL
BETWEEN
RESOURCE
USE
ENVIRONMENT ..
SUMMARY
3.1
Marine Pollution
3.1.1 Eutrophic Pollutants
3.1.2 Heavy Metal Pollutants
3.1.3 Oil and Oil based Pollutants
3.1.4 Thermal Pollutants
3.1.5 Turbidity Pollutants
3.2
Harvesting Of Natural Marine Resources
3.2.1 Fishing
3.2.1 Harvesting of Seaweeds
3.3
Physical Modification
3.3.1 Coastal Wetlands
3.3.2 Coastal Protection Works
3.4 Conclusion
AND
.. 37
Four
RATIONAL
MARINE
FOR
PROTECTION
OF
NATURAL
AREAS
.. 60
Summary
4.0
Desire For Marine Conservation
4.1
Protection Of Land Based Natural Habitats
4.2
Protection Of Marine Natural Habitats
4.3
Benefits Of A M.P.A. Programme
4.3.1 Maintenance of Marine Harvestable Resources
4.3.2 Preservation of Genetic Diversity
4.3.3 Benefits for Applied Research
4.3.4 Bene'fits for Non-Material Needs of Society
4.4
Costs Of A M.P.A. Programme
4.4.1 Costs of Limitations of Use
4.4.2 Costs of Implimentation and Administration
4.5
Five
Conclusion
APPROACHES
AREAS
TO
A
MARINE
PROTECTED
PROGRAMME
..
85
Summary
5.0
Policy, Goals and Objectives of Marine Conservation
5.1
Goals of Marine Conservation
5.2
Objectives of a M.P.A. programme
5.3
Criteria relevant to a M.P.A. programme
5.3.1 Biologically based criteria
5.3.2 Human use based criteria
5.4
A Proposal for a M.P.A. programme
5.4.1 M.P.A. site selection
5.5
M.A.F.'s Proposal for a M.P.A. programme
5.5.1 Deficiencies in the M.A.F. approach
5.6
Conclusion
REFERENCES
_ _>iIIIIIIo._ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ -- -.-.
112
1
ABSTRACT
This study introduces New Zealand's coastal/marine environment as both a
natural habitat and a natural resource complex.
It outlines the unique
management features and characteristics of New Zealand's marine
environment and describes its habitats and species. It examines the conflicts
that are arising because this environment is functioning as both a natural
resource complex and a natural habitat. The study then presents a rationale
for, and the likely benefits and costs of, a Marine Protected Area (M.P.A.)
programme as part of a policy of 'Marine Conservation'.
An approach to natural resource management to achieve a policy of
'Marine Conservation' based on a 'goal' orientated approach to planning is
introduced.
Appropriate policies. goals objectives. categories and criteria of
marine protected areas (M.P.As.) are proposed. A number of categories of
M.P.A., designated with specific reference to the selected goals and
objectives, are presented. This new approach links criteria for selection of
M.P.A. sites directly to the policy of marine conservation and the goals and
objectives of a M.P.A. programme. In conclusion this study evaluates the
likely success of the M.P.A. programme proposed by the Ministry of
Agriculture and Fisheries (M.A. F.) (1985) in achieving the
goals and
objectives of marine conservation. In doing so the goal oriented approach to
planning is suggested as being a better alternative.
2
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I wish to convey my sincere thanks to the many people,
including Centre for Resource Management staff, friends and
family, who have provided the encouragement, advise and
understanding necessary for the completion of this project. I
would especially like to thank Ann Jebson for her personal
support and understanding at a time when I probable did
not deserve it but most needed it. I would also like to thank
John Hayward for his advice, encouragement and support;
Carolyn
Blackford for her friendship and unselfish
assistance; Graham Smitheram for his editorial advice; Judy
Parker, Robyn Jebson, Victoria Crawford and Ann Jebson
for their invaluable assistance with proof reading; Michael
Amer and Vivian from 'Computor Services' for assistance
with typing; and the rest of my fellow classmates whose
comradeship I will always value.
3
CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION TO THE RESOURCE
1.0
INTRODUCTION
As society approachs the last decade of the twentieth century and
looks forward into the twenty first century, exponential increases in
knowledge and technology are allowing greater insight into both positive and
negative social, economic and environmental impacts of natural resource
use. More flexible and innovative ways of managing the natural resources
are needed if negative impacts and conflicts between the uses of natural
resources are to be minimised.
One of New Zealand's most extensive natural resources is the marine
environment around its shores. Despite New Zealand's small land area its
Government is responsible, by International Treaty, for administering the
third largest area of ocean of any country in the world. This area is called the
200 Mile Exclusive Economic Zone and is over 1.2 million square nautical
miles in total area. The Nation also has direct territorial ownership of a much
more modest area called the Territorial Sea extending twelve nautical miles
out from New Zealand's shoreline.
As New Zealand's two main islands are elongated in shape
the
adjacent marine environment stretches across more than thirteen degrees of
latitude. This results in an environment with a distinct subtropical character in
the north, and a subantartic character in the south. The main islands also
have an extensive and sometimes convoluted coastline of over 10,000
kilometres in length. These factors combined with a range of coastal land
forms; marine topographic and physiographic features provide a wide range
of environments for a diversity of marine and coastal plants and animals
particularly within the coastal margins.
4
1.1
THE RESOURCE
As well as being the habitat for a diversity of flora and fauna the marine
environment around New Zealand is a vital natural resource complex,
important for the production of material commodities such as minerals,
energy, food and other products upon which society depends. The marine
environment, (especially in the coastal regions), also provides for non
material needs of society, such as; recreational, spiritual, cultural and
educational needs. The coastal region of the marine environment has also
been percieved by some, as a land resource for reclamation, harbour and
marina development and as a convenient site for the disposal of quantities of
urban, commercial and industrial waste.
1.2
THE PROBLEM
There is evidence of increasing conflict between some of the different
types of use to which the marine environment is being put. This is occuring at
a time when there is mounting interest in this resource complex for a variety of
uses.
It is becomingapparant that excessive pollution, reclamation and
overfishing are not compatable with some other uses of the marine
environment.
Marked decline in fin fish landings worldwide and in New
Zealand over the last ten years despite increased fishing effort is one
indication of the conflicts. Restrictions on some recreational activities such as
swimming and the taking of shellfish in parts of the coastal zone (i.e. the
Manukau and Waitemata harbours), is another indication of conflicts arising
among users of the marine environment.
1.3
CURRENT STRATEGIES AND LEGISLATION
This recognition of increasing conflict in the use of New Zealand's
5
marine environment parallels a growing awareness of the need for innovative
planning in the management of natural resources to achieve 'marine
conservation' goals. Perhaps one of the most concise expressions of this
growing awareness can be found in:
'Integrating Conservation and Development: a
Proposal for a New Zealand Conservation Strategy',
a document released by the International Union for the Conservation of Nature
(I.U.C.N.) and the Nature Conservation Council (N.C.C), (1981).
This document adopted the following major goals under a 'policy' of
natural resource conservation:
(1) to ensure the sustainable use of renewable natural resources,
(2)
to provide for cultural spiritual and other non-material needs of
society by protection and development of diversity in the use of natural
resources,
(3)
to protect ecological processes and life support systems,
(4)
to preserve genetic diversity (the range of genetic information
found in organisms that coupled with environmental factors produce
the observeable attributes of an organism).
(Until new goals are presented in chapter five these goals will be adopted for
the purposes of this study as working goals of marine conservation.)
With regards to natural land areas in New Zealand, government
resource management agencies have used a management strategy involving
the protection of natural areas within parks and reserves in an attempt to
achieve what is in effect the I.U.C.N goals.
Until relatively recently such a
'natural protected areas' approach to management was limited to land areas
only. Management of the marine environment was restricted within a number
of narrowly defined Acts of Parliment including: the Fisheries Act 1908, the
6
Marine Mammals Protection Act 1978, the Continental Shelf Act 1964, the
Marine Pollution Act 1974, the Harbours Act 1950, the Town and Country
Planning Act 1977 and the Water and Soil Conservation Act 1967. The only
statute allowing limited protection of marine species and habitats within a type
of protected area is the
Marine Reserves Act 1971, although this Act is
however very limited in its scope. With the advent of the new Fisheries Act
1983, and the Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries (M.A.F.) 1985 proposed
update of the Marine Reserves Act 1971, there appears to be much more
potential for the application of a range of new management strategies in order
to fulfil a wider range of goals in relation to New Zealand's marine and coastal
environment. New stategies could include a broader version of the Marine
Reserves Act 1971 as part of a 'natural protected areas programme'.
1.4
STUDY OBJECTIVES
With specific reference to New Zealand's coastal and marine
environment this study sets out to:
(1)
Characterise the unique features of marine and coastal
ecosystems for conservation and management, and describe the general
physical and biotic features of this environment around New Zealand.
(2)
Examine the legitamacy of the claim that there is conflict between
types of use of the marine and coastal environment and to assess if coastal
ecosystems are being detrimentally affected by human activity including
pollution, harvesting and physical modification.
(3)
Examine the rationale for the inclusion of some coastal and marine
areas within a Marine Protected Areas (M.P.A.) Programme for the purposes of
7
marine conservation, and also highlight the possible benefits and costs of such
a programme.
(4)
Suggest appropriate goals and objectives of conservation for a
M.P.A.Programme in light of the findings from study objectives (1), (2) & (3).
(5) Present criteria and a conceptual framework for their application in
selecting sites to be included in a M.P.A.Programme
(6)
Present a preliminary proposal for a M.P.A.Programme with
specific attention to goals and objectives of such a programme.
(7)
Critique M.A.F.'s proposed New Zealand M.P.A.Programme , (as
outlined in the 1985 'Proposed National Policy For Marine Reserves' ), with
reference to the approach presented in this study.
1.5
STUDY
DEFINITIONS
For the purpose of this study the following definitions of Preservation
and Conservation. as defined by Barker and Brown (1979), have been
adopted.
(1)
'Conservation '-
implies 'wise' or 'rational' use of biological
systems in accordance with natural processes and biological systems in order
to retain the characteristics of the resource, and to ensure continuation of the
resource in perpetuity. This implies that the resource may be used provided
that its quality is not
irreversibly diminished and the total quantity of the
resource is not utilised at a rate faster than it can be replenished'.
8
(2)
'Perservation' - refers to an extreme subset of conservation and
means the maintenance of the state of things (existing or original) including
quantity, quality and variety. Preservation of a resource therefore only enables
use if this does not detract from the maintenance of the resource.
Consequently halting of human use of the resource is often required.
OTHER STUDY DEFINITIONS INCLUDE:
(3)
Protected Areas' - refers to the concept of altering 'property rights'
(rights of ownership, access and use of a resource) in regards to a particular
area usually by legal means, so that the resource is either conserved or
preserved. Implicit in this definition is the assumption of a range catergories of
protection, depending upon what alterations are made to existing property
rights.
A'Protected Area' therefore refers to a set of 'property rights' that
provide for the management of an area at some point along the spectrum from
consumptive human use to total preservation.
(4)
Coastal/Marine Ecosvstems - refers to the community of organisms
occupying a defined region (in this case the coastal/marine regions around
New Zealand), their interactions with each other and with the physical features
of their environment.
(5)
The Coastal/Marine region - refers to the areas of sea and ocean
off the coastline of the islands of New Zealand included within its Exclusive
Economic Zone (E.E.Z.), as well as the coastal margins of land which interact
with marine processes.
(The Coastal/marine environment, hereafter refered to as marine
environment, is considered to be a 'natural resource complex').
(6) Natural Resource Complex - is defined as a range of things or
conditions that are able to, (or potentially able to), contribute
to human
satisfaction in a number of ways by either their consumptive use (for example
9
fish harvesting), or non-consumptive use (for example appreciating aquatic
scenery).
Humans consequentially can gain satisfaction from the marine
environment as a natural resource complex, along a spectrum from at one
extreme total development to the other extreme of total preservation of marine
ecosystems.
(7)POLICY - is defined as a broad statement of guiding philosophy or
purpose which outlines the desired ends of the planning process, (by reflecting
societal values) and whose value position is explicitly given.
(8)GOALS - are defined as more spercific 'ends statements' which are
designed to provide a clear direction towards the satisfaction of policy. Value
positions are implicit in goals.
(9)OBJECTIVES - are defined as the means of achieving the goal.
Objectives are hence an attempt to define policy and goals with measureable
criteria. They must be fully specified and attainable.
The next chapter examinse the important features and characteristics of
New Zealand's marine and coastal environment.
10
CHAPTER TWO
CHARACTERISATION OF NEW ZEALAND'S MARINE
ENVIRONMENT
SUMMARY
Chapter one introduces the coastal/marine environment around New
Zealand as both a natural habitat and its largest natural resource complex.
Chapter one puts forward the proposition that this enviroment may need
innovative and imaginative management if conservation policies, goals and
objectives are to be achieved.
In this chapter the unique features of marine environments and
ecosystems are considered in terms of implimenting one class of
management, a Marine Protected Areas (M.P.A) programme. The general
physical and biotic features of New Zealand's coastal/marine environment
are also described. It is concluded that:
(1)
The open ocean outside the continental shelf should be afforded
low priority in the selection of M.P.As. to achieve two of the I.U.C.N. goals of a
M.P.A. programme;
maintaining species diversity and production. This is
because of the open ocean's naturally low species diversity and production
in comparison to the coastal seas.
(2)
New Zealands coastal seas generally, and
mangroves, kelp
and seagrass systems in particular, should have higher priority for the
I.U.C.N. goals of maintaining species diversity and production. This reflects
the higher potential risk in the coastal zone, the much greater diversity of
species and habitat and the significantly higher rates of production in
comparison to the open ocean.
11
(3)
Some specific habitats of the coastal zone are critical to
reproduction and recruitment of a wide range of marine and coastal species
in both their own systems and surrounding areas. Therefore these habitats
should have very high management priority in order to achieve the I,U.C.N
goals of maintaining species diversity and production.
(4)
The marine system is not strickly bounded by the shore lines
Mean High Water Mark (M.H.W.M) as activities on land such as pollution can
affect the marine environment.
This should be given consideration in the
management of M.P.As.
(5)
Pollution can be transmitted through the marine environment by
water currents, or against currents by the feeding interactions of some
organisms.
Hence both downstream, down current and possibly upstream
and upcurrent impacts should be considered in the management and
positioning of M.P.As.
(6)
The sea often has subtle boundaries to distribution operating for
some marine species.
Hence New Zealand marine species can show
genetic differientiation with many species existing in broad biogeographical
'clines'.
These clines form a mosaic pattern of species and subspecies
distribution around New Zealand with at least two broad centres of species
distribution.
(7)
The management of marine species is often difficult because the
ecology of coastal ecosystems is complex.
Apparently minor interference
with some species may have major ramifications on other species because
of 'Key Stone' species effects.
Conversely major interference with one
species may have little impact on other species due to the buffering nature of
some food web relationships.
Management practices
should initially be
conservative until the true nature of these relationships are better understood.
12
(8)
A large number of marine animals are
territorial and
are
ameniable to protection within a designated area. Other marine species are
either migratory or non-territorial and therefore other conservation and
management strategy, either in association with a M.P.A.Programme, (to
protect critical habitats and maintain the general health of marine systems) ,
may be necessary to conserve these species.
13
2.0
MARINE AND COASTAL ECOSYSTEMS
INTRODUCTION·
The ocean as an environment can be described as an immense three
dimensional living hydrosphere.
Marine animals inhabit on a permanent
basis all areas of this hydrosphere from the floor of the deepest oceanic
trench to the ocean surface and coastal fringes. Some free swimming marine
animals have distibution patterns and or migratory routes extending for
thousands of miles horizontally. In contrast life exists on land as a thin almost
two dimensional veneer, surrounded by an atmosphere, which is
uninhabitated on a permanent basis. Distribution on land is also often
restricted by innumerable physical features.
This marine environment
(hydrosphere) can be divided into the Open Ocean outside the continental
shelf and the Coastal Zone over the shelf, and these now will be considered
in turn.
2.1
THE OPEN OCEAN
According to Odum (1967) all phyla and most taxonomic classes of the
animal kingdom have representatives in the open ocean, yet this environment
is relatively uniform and unproductive compared with terrestrial environments.
The 'Open Ocean' refers to the area of seafloor and ocean outside the 200
metre bathymetric seafloor contour.
Odum (1967) describes much of the
open ocean as 'semi desert' interms of biological productivity. Productivity in
this context refers to the ability of plants and other photosynthesising
organism (that produce their own food) to convert the suns radiant energy into
biomass (biological material). This biomass is then available for consumption
by animals and other organisms (that can't produce their own food).
14
Productivity of a system is usually determined by finely balanced
biological and physical factors.
Liebergs 'Law of the Minimum', a
fundamental law of ecology, states that the productivity of any system is
controlled by essential material such as nutrients present in the most limiting
amount and providing the least favourable conditions for production.
With the exception of areas of strong current convergence resulting in
local nutrient upwelling, (such as around Antarctica), the waters of the open
ocean have low nutrient levels resulting in very low productivity compared
with most coastal and terrestrial areas (Mann, 1982). Low nutrient levels are
attributed to four major factors:
(1)
The lack of water turbulance at the sea floor in the deep waters of the
open ocean, to recycle up through the water column the essential minerals
and nutrients to the shallow productive zone of light penetration near the
surface;
(2)
The lack of appreciable terrestial nutrient inputs form surface and
ground water runoff because of the distance from the coast to the
open
ocean;
(3)
The relatively small area of the biologically productive (autotrophic)
zone of light penetration adjacent to the surface in comparison to the
unproductive (heterotrophic zone) in deeper water depths.
(4)
The absence of the large more productive stationary marine plants in
deep water.
As well as being of low productivity, the open ocean is usually
characterised by low species diversity (Odum 1967). "Low diversity can be
attributed to the ecological maxum that diversity tends to be low in relatively
uniform environments with strong physiochemical limiting factors such as low
nutrient levels", Connell illJil. (1964).
15
As a result the open ocean generally should be of low interest in terms
of importance to species diversity, genetic diversity, fisheries production and
abundance. The exception in the case of fishery production would be the few
areas of nutrient upwelling, such as occurs around Antarctica.
2.2
THE
COASTAL
ZONE
PRODUCTIVITY
&
SPECIES
DIVERSITY
Only in the shallow coastal waters of the continental shelf are nutrient
levels enhanced enough by ocean upwellings, seafloor turbulance and
terrestrial runoff to provide increased biological productivity. In New Zealand
this area represents only 25% percent of the total area of the Exclusive
Economic Zone (E.E.Z.). According to Mann (1972) coastal waters are in
general five times as productive as the open ocean. This means that five
times more biological material is produced per square metre of sea surface.
Certain areas of the coastal zone, such as saltmarshs and estuaries,
can even be up to 15 times as productive as the open ocean.
Such
productivity is in the same range as the most productive terrestial ecosystem
the tropical rainforest.
Holdren and Ehrlich (1974) state that 99% of all
oceanic productivity take place in less than 10% of its area (predominantly
the coastal region), and half of that is in only 0.1 % of its area where coastal
upwellings predominate.
The site of primary production in the coastal zone differs from that of the
open ocean because between 62% and 75% of coastal primary production
has been attributed to flowering plants or large species of algae (kelp)
according to Odum (1968).
In comparison the open ocean is
primary production from microscopic algae.
reliant on
(Large fixed plants and fixed
16
algae have a natural physiological advantage in production over free floating
microscopic algae, as
water movement around fixed plants and algae
continually replenishes chemicals, minerals and nutrients
and removes
waste to a much greater extent than for the free floating microscopic forms).
The high productivity of the coastal waters,
coupled with a large
number of habitats, especially at the margin between land and sea, provides
for a very high diversity of species. The biological and physical processes
that occur at this interface between land and sea characterise the coastal
zone as an ecotone (Ray 1976).
Ecotones, which are the junctions of
biological communities, have an increased variety and density of species
over the ecosystems they border (Dolan et
al, 1916). According to Ray
(1976) many terrestrial and oceanic species depend on the coastal zone for
food or as a habitat for part of their life cycle, with the result that coastal
ecotones probably boast the greatest diversity of life on earth.
Marine life forms are also generally more varied in morphology and
physiology than those found on land because they exist in a more benign
and stable environment and have a much longer evolutionary history. This
allows greater scope for variations although the total number of marine
species has been estimated to be perhaps only a fifth of those found on land
(Ray ill al ., 1984).
The preceeding authors all emphasise the incredible richness of the
coastal zone in both species diverisity and biological productivity and this will
be considered in later chapters. First however the characteristics of marine
systems will be discussed in relation to Marine Conservation.
2.3
BOUNDARIES OF THE COASTAL ZONE AND OPEN OCEAN
The physical boundaries of the coastal zone have been defined by Ray
17
ef al. (1984) as;
(i) The terrestrial boundary being the inland extent of astronomical tidal
influence.
(ii) The seaward boundary being the outer extent of the continental
shelf, usually considered to be the 200 metre bathymetric depth contour.
(This contour is also considered to be the boundary of the open ocean.)
Many coastal geographers have noted that the terrestial boundary is
highly dynamic. There can be spatial changes to coastline features such as
shorelines, dunes, banks, inlets and shoals occuring over a period varying
from a few minutes to a range of years.
boundary
The dynamic character of this
means that there can be problems in ridgidly fixing legal
boundaries in this zone for management based on coastal features.
For
example Kirk (1986) has reported that the mean high water mark (M.H.W.M.),
a commonly used legal boundary definition on New Zealand beaches, can
vary upto 100 metres horizontally in a single year.
The physically defined boundary between the coastal zone and open
ocean is even more arbitary.
Changes in strickly phYSical processes that
separate the coastal zone form the open ocean are often subtle and can
occur over a range of seafloor depths.
For the sake of simplicity however,
this study will adopt the 200 metre bathymetric contour boundary definition.
The biophysical boundaries of the coastal zone are also a problem to
define.
Many chemical, biological or physical processes that affect the
coastal zone and its ecosystems transend one or both of the zones
boundaries.
For example terrestial 'run off'
(resulting in the passage of
beneficial and harmful material across form the land into the coastal zone),
and coastal currents (affecting local processes) originate outside this zone.
18
Many animal species are not restricted to the coastal zone and will
migrate across the landward and or seaward boundaries. In New Zealand for
example seabirds, furseals, elephantseals, leopard seals, salmon, whitebait,
eels
a~d
1984).
some crab species regularly cross the terrestial boundary (Ray
Similiarly whales, dolphins, many fish and seabirds (notably shelf
edge fish species such as red cod and migratory birds such as albatrosses),
continually cross the arbitary seaward boundary of this zone.
Some marine species even migrate long distances and transend the
open ocean and continetal shelves of many countries. Management of the
coastal zone and open ocean is therefore complicated by the fact that neither
biologically or physically can these areas be defined as closed systems.
This does not imply that there are no boundaries to dispersal in the
marine environment.
Many marine species of plants and animals are
restricted within certain areas or ranges of dispersal.
The boundaries to
dispersal for individual species are often subtle however and may depend
upon a number of factors such as changes in temperature, salinity, turbidity,
nutrient load, oxygen and carbondioxide levels, water depth ;or the presence
of eddies, circulation cells, oceanic currents, upwellings and local weather
patterns.
These factors in conjunction with more obvious physical barriers to
dispersal, such as bars, spits, and other landforms, results in the limited
distribution of many species within certain areas or 'natural habitat units'. (A
habitat unit is to some extent a selfcontained ecological unit such as a reef).
The implication of limits to dispersal is that many marine species can be
protected by managing appropriate 'natural habitat unit'
19
2.4
MARINE SPECIATION
It was commonly percieved until recently, that because of the
apparently uniform nature of the marine environment, marine plants and
animals had little genetic diversity. Recent findings however show that where
there are biophysical boundaries to dispersal for a marine species, local
genetically differientiated subspecies or populations can arise and pockets of
endemism can be observed. Polunin (1983) reported this to be especially
true for marine species where there are boundaries to larval dispersal in
association with a short planktonic phase, low fertility and a small parent
population.
Furthermore in partially isolated marine environments such as
fjords, estuaries and deep sea trenchs, Polunin (1983) has reported very
significant genetic differientiation indeed between some marine subspecies.
(Genetic differientiation refers to changes in the genetic code between
populations of a species).
Selander (1976) has found supporting evidence of marine genetic
diversity within and across marine species, from measuring the genetic
variability (heterozygosity) over a wide cross section of marine species and
phyla. He states that "counter to popular consensus marine populations
exhibit high genetic variability on a par with terrestial mammals and reptiles".
This existance of local and regional marine endemism, high genetic diversity
and a
richness of unique morphologies and physiologies all point to the
potential value of
maintaining marine genetic resources.
This will be
considered in more detail in Chapter four.,
2.5
CURRENTS AND CIRCULATION
Coastal and ocean ecosystems share a number of other factors in
common that shape their unique nature and set them apart from terrestial
20
ecosystems. One of the most important of the aquatic environmental factors
affecting marine organisms is water currents. An understanding of currents is
basic to
marine systems management including M.P.A.programmes.
In
providing a transport mechanism for marine organisms currents affect species
distribution.
Currents transport chemicals, nutrients and particulate food,
bring in oxygen and remove waste. Their force determines to a large extent
which species may exist in which areas and they also determine, in
association with other factors such as tidal range, the quantity, direction and
duration of salt water inundation within estuaries and harbour. The circulation
patterns which result from currents may in turn influence the temperature
regimes in protected bodies of water (inlets, estuaries and harbours), and in
coastal waters.
Although human activities have little if any influence on large scale
current patterns, they can influence local circulation currents in estuaries and
other coastal wetlands; and longshore currents by modifyinginlets or by
building groins or other shore protection structures.
Changes in local
currents and circulation patterns can have both physical and biological
ramifications that can, at a locally level,
profoundly affect biological
distribution. (Kirk pers com. 1986)
2.S.1The 'Sink', 'Downstream Effects' and 'Short Circuits'
The sea is described by Ray (1976) as a 'sink' in that ultimately rainfall and
land drainage carries terrestial and atmospheric nutrients, pollutants and silt
to the sea.
Forests, estuaries, mangroves and marshes are natural filters
which retard the passage of these often harmful products. Because most
marine species are directly immersed in and have a continuity of body fluids
with sea water, they tend to be very succeptable to pollutants. Pollutants can
21
,
quickly enter the tissues and body fluids of marine organisms and be
occasionally passed on to other species by feeding relationships.
If the natural .filters are damaged or destroyed the resulting reduction in
water quality due to pollution is likely to cause impacts 'downstream' and
'down current' from the pollution sources. This is due to the transport of the
pollutants thecurrent.
The nature of these impacts will be discussed in
chapter three.
In addition many marine species can move through the water both
laterally and vertically often against the currents. This can provide a 'short
circuit to pollutant transfer via the feeding interactions resulting in 'upstream'
and 'upcurrent' impacts as well (Walsh 1972).
2.6
TROPHIC FEEDING STRUCTURES OF MARINE SYSTEMS
Many marine ecosystems are functionally different from terrestial
ecosystems in that the greatest biomass often occurs at higher trophic levels
(a functional classification of organisms according to feeding relationships),
such as at the level of primary consumers (animals that consume plants).
High net phytoplankton productivity in the marine environment compensates
for the lack of a large standing crop of unconsumed plant tissue at the
primary producer level. In ecological terms the marine ecosystems is
consequently often described as having an inverted pyramid of biomass
(Odum 1967).
Also in contrast to terrestrial systems, the open ocean's
primary producers do not form a physical structural habitat on which other
organisms can live.
Coastal systems, based on large fixed plants (autotrophs), such as
mangrove, seagrass, marshgrass and kelp based ecosystems, are the
exception to the rule as they provide both a structural habitat, and a biomass
distribution between producers and primary and secondary consumers,
22
(animals that consume (1) plants or (2) other animals), that more closely
resemble land based ecosystems.
The feeding relationship between marine species range from being
complex to quite simple, depending upon local physical and biological
factors.
Rapport et
ill.,
(1985) reports that most feeding relationships in
unstressed marine systems seem to be 'unstructured', with most species
having a number of major predator and or prey species. This complex type of
feeding relationships is usually described as a 'food web.'
In more stressed marine environments however Rapport
mill.
(1985)
reports that feeding relationships tend to become more structured and simple
with often a direct and linear linkages of feeding interactions. An example
would be where a species only feeds on one spercific prey species and in
turn is eaten by only one species of predator. A simple feeding relationships
such as this is usually called a 'food chain'.
In these simpler feeding
relationships Paine (1969) identified 'Keystone species', because of the
fundamental role that they may play in the ecosystems. These predator and
or prey species either provide the sole link between species at differient
trophic levels in a food chain or control the populations of other species by
predation or competition. The previous sections examined important aspects
of the coastal zone and open ocean.
In this context the next section
highlights the unique aspects of the New Zealand marine environment.
2.7
NEW ZEALAND'S COASTAL AND MARINE ENVIRONMENT
New Zealand administers a large area of open ocean within its 200
mile E.E.Z. The coastal zone around New Zealand, (21 % of the total EE.Z.
that is found over the continental shelf), is however a relatively narrow strip of
sea floor covering an area slightly less than the land area of New Zealand.
23
2.7.1Major Currents and Sea Temperature
The sea around New Zealand is characterised by wide differences in
temperature.
Mean sea water temperatures as high as 24° C have been
recorded in the Hauraki Gulf, as these waters are reached occasionally by
sub tropical currents of the Tradewind Drift. In association with this current,
tropical and subtropical marine species have been reported arou nd the Poor
Knights Islands (Anon. 1982). In contrast the south-western tip of the South
Island experiences substantially colder water from the cold West Wind Drift.
For an outline of summer mean sea surface termperatures around New
Zealand refer figure 1 : page 24.
Off the west coast of both major islands, the Tasman sea has an
anticlockwise circulation current called the Tasman Current of subtropical
water which sweeps eastward and then flows up New Zealands West Coast.
New Zealand's coastal currents are derived from the interaction between
these three principle currents and with local topography and weather
patterns.
For an outline of major coastal current patterns around New
Zealand refer to Figure 2: page 25.
2.7.2 Classification of New Zealand's Marine Environment
New Zealand's waters are considery to be mainly subtropical in
character with the two main islands falling into the Eastern Temperate
Coastal Realm under Rays (1975) classification of marine environments.
Hayden et a!. (1984) has further divided this realm into two provinces
representing broadly recognisible centres of species distribution. They are
the warmer Northern Province and colder Southern Province that meet in the
coastal region adjacent to Port Waikato and East Cape.
provinces there is extreme overlap of flora and fauna.
Between the two
24
~(V
22~
23
21
''''0
:G _"'"",
18--1"
17--__
18
16
16
14
13
/5
Figure
Temperature Contours in degrees
celcius (Summer).
New Zealand
Coastal Waters.
25
180·
176"
/1 I
Trade W''nd
Drift
Talman
~
Curr~nt
Subtropical
w/
w"./,nd
Drilt
Convergence
26
Based on a slightly differient approach of marine biography,
Knox
(1975) has identified six marine provinces around New Zealand. They are
the;
(A)
Kermadec
province
of tropical
and
subtropical water
temperatures.
(B)
Aupourian province of transitional warm termperate water
from around the eastern North Island.
(C)
Coaliian province of cold temperate water from around central
New Zealand.
(D)
Forsterian province of transition between subantarctic cold
temperate and the cold temperate mixed waters around the
southern South Island, Stewart Island and theSnares Island.
(E)
Moriorian province of subtropical convergence surrounding the
Chatham Islands.
(D)
Antipodean province of subantarctic cold temperate waters
surrounding the subantarctic islands.
King et al. (1985) have devised a separate classification of coastal and
marine areas of New Zealand based primarily on marine topography with
reference to hydrology and biological data. Their classification divides New
Zealands Coastal waters into three major territories as listed below:
(1)
The Northern Neritic Territory - analogous to Hayden's et. al.
(1984) Northern province.
(2)
The Central Neritic Territory - extending from the northern region
to Otago peninsula on the East Coast and Haast Pass on the
West Coast.
(3)
The Southern Neritic Territory - an area south of the Central
Neritic Territory.
27
Each territory is divided into coastal and shelf ecological regions and then
further subdivided into coastal and shelf ecological districts.
In spite of the classification of habitats described above and the
restricted distributional range of some New Zealand's marine species, there
is much overlap of life forms and living patterns in New Zealand's coastal
waters (Tortell 1981). The marine environment often has mosiac patterns of
'species distribution' as distribution often changes in a graded way, forming a
biogeographical 'cline'.
(A 'cline' refers to a gradual change in genetic
makeup of a species across its area of distribution).
2.7.3 Physical Topography
The coastline of New Zealand is very varied in topography. Many
harbours and estuaries have been formed through submergence of river
valleys and volcanic craters. Resistant volcanic and other hard rocks form the
promontorys and corners of the two main islands as well as numerous
offshore islands. The subantarctic islands of the New Zealand group are all
on submerged plateaus which connect geologically with the mainland.
Coastal features such as cliff shores and rocky beaches are found on both
main islands as well as on many minor islands. The east coast of the South
Island particularly has a large number of hard rock and gravel shores.
Between major headlands on both islands sandy beaches occur which may
be gradually building up or eroding depending upon local sediment supply
and local processes.
Natural shoreline erosion is encouraged by a high
energy wave climate caused by prevailing westerly and south-west winds,
although many northern aspects of islands, capes and peninsulas are
relatively sheltered.
28
2.7.4 The Biology of New Zealand's Marine Environment
This section provides a generalised description of the marine
habitats, plants and animals of New Zealand's coastal and marine
environment.
New Zealand's coastal environment can to some degree be
divided into the Soft and Hard shore environments and the continental shelf
environment.
2.7.5 New Zealand's Soft Shores and Mud Flats
Soft shores and mudflats include the parts of the coastal
environment, on the border between land and sea, where the structural
component is unconsolidated material such as sand, mud or silt
(either
eroding or being deposited). Morton and Miller (1968) have further divided
this environment into A) Exposed, B) Protected and C) Enclosed shores.
(A) Exposed Soft New Zealand Shores. Exposed soft shores are extremely
dynamic and unstable coastal habitats where wave actions and currents are
unrestrained by any sheltering features. Large volumes of sandy sediments
are transported off or on shore extremely quickly by wave action. There are
few suitable anchorage sites for plants or animals.
On-site production is
limited to microscopic algae. Consequently Miller and Batt (1973) report that
the sediments of exposed beaches have a low organic content.
Typical inhabitants of New Zealand's exposed shores must cope
with an unstable environment that could quickly bury them, or expose them to
a high energy wave environment. As a result species diveristy is limited by
this factor and is low in comparison to other types of soft shore. Typical New
Zealand exposed shore inhabitants include; shellfish bivalves such as the
tuatua, and toheroa, sea slaters, sand lice, sandhoppers; and
a limited
29
number of of gastropod (snail) and annelids (segmented worms) species. In
the middle and lower sections of the beach the mantis shrimp, ghost shrimp
and swimming crab are also common.
(8)
Protected Soft New Zealand Shores. In moderate coastal shelter
where wave and current influences are restrained by land forms, protected
beaches can develop.
They represent a more stable and less dynamic
environment in comparison to exposed shores.
Sediments are a sand/silt
mixture, and burrowing and sea floor surface dwelling animals are diverse
and abundant. On site primary production, from algae blooms and eel or sea
grasses towards low water, is moderately high in comparison to other coastal
habitats (Mann 1982).
Typical inhabitants of New Zealand's protected shores include
species of pipis, cockles, the bivalve Macomona liliana ; many species of
worms such as the acorn worm; starfish (echinoderms) species such as the
sea cucumber, sand dollar, and heart urchins; crustaceans including the sand
shrimp, swimming crab, mantis shrimp and ghost shrimp, four species of
burrowing crab and a species of burrowing shrimp.
The sea grass Zostera sp , found in abundance on protected soft
shores, is a moderately important source of primary production for the
adjacent coastal food chains according to Mann(1982). Zostera is reported to
playa significant role in coastal food chains because of its role in mineral
fixation and nutrient cycling.
The slow decay of seagrass detritus is also
thought to confer a stabilizing influence into some feeding relationships by
providing a slow constant nutrient input into the food chain, (regardless of
short term seasonal variations in primary produciton).
Consequently the
presence of Zostera could infers an importance on protected soft New
Zealand shores, because of its relationship to local coastal production.
30
(C)
Enclosed Soft New Zealand Shores.
Within the protection of
estuaries, semi enclosed harbours and lagoons, silty and clay sediment
accumulates to form enclosed mud flats and wetlands.
Due to lower
sediment oxygen levels in these shore sediments, enclosed shores have a
smaller range of burrowing fauna in comparison to protected beaches. On
site primary production is typically attributed to algae blooms, seagrasses ,
glasswort swamps and to the mangrove in the northern North Island.
The range of typical species depends on the degree of mixing of
salt water and fresh water, however representative species include two
species of mud crab, the snapping shrimp, the tiny bivalve shellfish Nucela,
three species of gastropod snail, the scavenging whelk and a species of air
breathing snail; as well as pipi, cockle and Macomona, (also common to
protected shores). Fish species restricted solely to these sheltered bays and
estuaries include the grey mullet, yellow eyed mullet and piperfish.
The
seagrass zostera may also form a low tidal green sward on enclosed
beaches.
In the Auckland Province, towards the swampy fringes of the
enclosed shore, the highly productive mangrove Avicennia resinifera occurs.
The mangrove utilises imported inorganic matter from tidal and terrestrial
sources and exports significant quantities of organic matter which supports
many coastal food chains. Lear and Turner (1977) reported that in a number
of overseas Pacific countries up to 80% of fish caught in coastal waters can
be directly linked to mangrove based food chains. Choat (pers comm 1985)
has stated that in northern New Zealand at least 30 species of coastal fish are
associated with Mangrove systems for part of their life cycle.
Mangroves swamps are sites of very high primary production
according to Lear
.m ill.
(1977) as mangrove biomass production per square
1
metre can
times that of the open ocean. Mangrove detritus is
an important coastal supplier of organic forms of two essential
thought to
nutrients, nitrogen and phosphorus.
Mangrove presence should therefore
infer high status on enclosed shores, for local coastal food production and
harvesting.
Mangroves are also reported to play an important role in the
prevention of coastal erosion and pollution by acting as a sediment trap,
natural filter and by absorbing wave energy.
South of Auckland where the mangrove disappears wide swamps
of rushes such as saltgrasses, glassworts and sedges cover the
correspondent region of enclosed shores. Studies overseas by Mann (1982)
and others have shown that these coastal wetlands and swamps can be
highly productive, (up t020 times that of the open ocean, depending upon
factors such as duration of tidal inundation, latitude ecetera).
Overseas studies have shown that nutrient inputs of up to 400/0 of a
coastal wetlands net annual primary production can be exported into
adjacent coastal water food chains from protected shores Odum (1971),
although
occassionally such sites can instead act as nutrient sinks by
trapping nutrients. When wetlands export nutrients they are likely to be be of
importance to coastal food production.
New Zealand's Hard Shores and
Hard shores and reefs include the parts of the shallow coastal
environment where the structural component is consolidated material such as
rock. Hard rock shores tend to show much more marked zonation of plants
and animals across the intertidal zone, than do soft shores. They also show a
greater diversity of habitat and species relative to soft shores of a comparable
wave environment.
Typical inhabitants of New Zealand's mid tidal zone on hard shores
include barnacle, chiton, limpet, snail, perwinkle and rock oyster.
At the
lower tidal level the green lipped mussel is also common but is replaced by
the blue mussel in more sheltered waters.
700 species of large fixed algae (often called kelp) can be found
on or adjacent to hard shores, or in deeper water. Common examples of kelp
include the giant bull kelp, bladder kelp species and Ecklonia kelp.
New
Zealand kelp is usually infested with mollusc, burrowing worms and many
species of crustacea.
Kelp forests have other residents such as corals,
sponges, sea urchins and fish species such as butterfish, parore, silver
drummer and black angle fish; and are often visited by other coastal or
offshore fish species. On their fringe may be found such species as parrot
fish, stingrays and hapuka (groper).
As a site of primary production, kelp species play an important role
in the marine ecosystem. Primary production from kelp can exceed that of salt
grasses.
Overseas
Mann (1982) reports that from 38%
to 75%
of total
primary production in coastal areas can be attributed to kelp production.
New Zealand also has a rich rocky reef community. Many species
of marine animals including; sponges, tubeworms, corals, mollusc sea
squirts, slipper limpets, scallops, cancer crabs, reef starfish, octopus, and
anemones can be found there. The richest range of New Zealand fish fauna
is also to be found on, or directly above this rocky reef environment. It is a
characteristic of many of the inshore pelagic fish species that they are
territorial and are usually restricted to particular bottom features adjacent to
hard
and protected shores Morton et a!. (1968). These mainly pelagic fish
species include the blue mao-mao, pink mao-mao, butterfly perch,
demoiselles, kingfish, kahawai, trevally and koheru.
In deeper water, extending out to approximately the 200 metre
bathymetric contour, there are a range of sea floor habitats which vary
according to the bottom substrate, (of mud, sand, gravel and rubble )
covering the continental shelf.
Mud covers a large percentage of this shelf, and representative
species to be found in association with this habitat includes the heart urchin,
brittle star, the shellfish Dosinia. as well as many species of amphipod and
worm. Over these sand and mud sea habitats can be found the demersal fish
species such as tarakihi, red gurnard, flounder, spotted smooth-hand, rays,
snapper red cod and warehou.
Gravel or rubble shelf habitats can be found in areas of greater
current influence. This substrate provides a habitat for a wealth of attached
marine life including massive sponges, encrusting polyzoans, hydroids,
tubular worms and anemones; as well as a rich variety of gastropod snails,
bivalve shellfish and rock oysters. Crab species to be found here include the
hermit crab and the corrugated swimming crab. Over the deep gravel and or
rocky sea floor swim such fish species as the leather jacket, goatfish, porae,
red moki, john dory, snapper, hapuku, blue nose warehou, orange roughy,
perch and blue cod.
2.7.8
New Zealand's Marine Fish
New Zealand has approximately 650 species of marine fin fish that
have been recorded in its coastal waters. Fenaughty~. (1982) reports
that New Zealand has a much higher diversity of fish species, but a lower
abundance per species, relative to Northern hemisphere coastal regions of
an equivalent latitude.
;j4
Many of New Zealand fish species are subtropical, especially
among northern coastal and inshore pelagic species (Ayling and Cox, 1982).
Examples include snapper, tarakihi, goatfish, wrasse and treva"y. In addition
New Zealand's north eastern coastal regions have a smaller group of inshore
subtropical species..
Examples include a reef fish the crimson cleaner,
elegant wrasse, blue knife fish and gold ribbon grouper.
New Zealand also has a number of cold temperate fish species
which are usually bottom living and found in the central and southern New
Zealand region.
Examples include john dory, lookdown dory, smooth and
spiky oreo, frost fish, ling; and orange and silver roughy. Off the south east
coast of the South Island can be found a number of subantarctic species
including the southern bluewhiting, black cod, maori fish and ghost shark.
Occasionally New Zealand's northern waters, especially around the Poor
Knights Islands gets a periodic infusion of tropical fish species such as moray
eel and puffer fish.
There is only a small group of fish species endemic
to New
Zealand and they include Blue cod, spotty, flounder and triplefin species.
Many fish found around New Zealand are instead populations or subspecies
of more widely distributed species.
The majority of New Zealand fish species are, territorial according
to Morton
.e.t aL. 1968,
(with the territory usually defined by seafloor features),
and consequently ameniable to protection within defined areas or habitats.
Where a fish species is nonterritorial conservation strategies such as
a
M.P.A. programme can still be used to protect critical habitats or migration
pathways. To conserve these species .management strategies apart from a
M.P.A. programme will also be necessary
(conserving fish stocks) is to be achieved.
if one conservation goal
ne
Many species of whales, dolphins and seals spend part of their life
history in the coastal waters or open ocean around New Zealand.
Some
species regularly use New Zealand waters as a migratory pathway including
the sperm whale, and humpback whale. Others species of whales and
dolphins spend their whole life history in New Zealand's waters. One species
the Hector dolphin, has only been reported in New Zealand's waters.
Other examples of whales and dolphins that have been reported in
New Zealand waters include: the pygmy sperm whale, the black right whale
(very rare but reported adjacent to the Cambell Islands), sei whale, pilot
whale, killer whale, false killer whale, pygmy right whale, tasman beaked
whale, scamperdown whale, arch beaked whale, strap toothed whale, cuvier
whale, giant bottle nosed whale, bottlenosed dolphin, grampus (or risso)
dolphin and dusky dolphin.
As with nonterritorial fish a M.P.A.programme may still be
appropriate for the management of some species of whale and dolphin, even
though they tend to be migratory. The programme can protect
components
of the marine system (such as productivity) critical to marine mammals
welfare. Additional management strategies to maintain whale and dolphin
numbers may also be necessary.
New Zealand has a number of seal species including the fur seal,
elephant seal and the leopard seal, (rarely found on the mainland). These
species tend to be more territorial and therefore M.P .A. protection is likely to
be of direct relevance in their management.
36
o
New Zealand is known internationally as a land of birds. The large
variety of species of wetland and true sea birds testifys to the appropriateness
of this description. Of the true sea birds, (that spend time foraging offshore),
examples include:
royal albatross,
red billed gull, black backed gull,
australian gannet, yellow eyed penguin, fordland crested penguin and little
blue penguin. Examples of species of birds that feed on or inhabitat marine
wetlands include: south island and pied oyster catcher, pied stilt; a number of
species of shag including; pied, little, blue, king, spotted and black shag
species; kingfisher, white fornted tern, banded dotterel, caspian tern, the rare
white heron and white faced heron, royal spoonbill, turnstone, knot, wrybill
and golden plover, godwit and sandpiper, to name a few.
M.P.A.protection
could be an important management tool to conserve the critical habitats of
importance to the marine wetland bird species of New Zealand.
The next chapter examines the conflicts between New zealand's
coastal and marine envronment as a natural habitat and as a human
resource.
ENVIRONMENT
SUMM
RY
In Chapter One New Zealand's marine environment is introduced as
both a natural habitat and a natural resource complex.
Chapter Two outlines the unique features and characteristics of the
marine environment with particular regard to the application of a Marine
Protected Areas (M.P.A.) Programme. Chapter Two also describes the species
and habitats of New Zealand's marine environment.
This chapter highlights some of the detrimental impacts that human
activity is considered to have on New Zealand's marine environment. These
impacts are examined in terms of the likely need for a M.P.A.programme. The
chapter concludes that:
(1) New Zealand's marine environment is in many areas extensively
exploited and modified;
(2) Major human activities having detrimental impacts on this environment
are:
a) Pollution (mainly due to local eutrophication, heavy metal discharge
and petrochemical discharge).
b) Harvesting of marine resources, (especially overfishing of
commercial fish species).
c) Physical modification of the coastal zone, (especially reclamation of
coastal wetlands, dredging of harbours estuaries,and inlets, some
coastal erosion works and opening or closing of coastal inlets).
(3) Impacts are most marked adjacent to heavily urbanised and industrialized
areas.
(4) Impacts are likely to be affecting both coastal production and on at least a
limited scale species genetic diversity and abundance. Impacts may also be
affecting community composition and ecological processes in some areas.
3.0
E
R
E
N
DU
It has been stated or implied by different researchers including Gardner
(1983) and Struik (1983), that many of New Zealand's marine ecosystems
have been heavily exploited and modified since European colonisation.
Although New Zealand has a small human population relative to the length of
its coastline the affects of human use are potentially significant because of the
close proximity of 80% of the population to the coastline;
the concentration of
much of this population in coastal urban areas ; "and
a history of marine
exploitation in New Zealand.
These three factors
may have resulted in an
adverse change in the characteristics of the marine environment.
The affect
of human activities can be considered under three headings:
3.1
(1)
Marine Pollution;
(2)
Harvesting; and,
(3)
Physical Modification.
MARINE
LUTION
As mentioned in chapter two, New Zealand's marine environment can
be considered as a 'sink', with the result that activities on land, in the air or at
sea can result in the passage of materials that affect the marine environment.
Where these material have an adverse affect, they are considered to be
pollutants.
According to Odum (1983) and Ray (1976), the effect of the majority of
polluting material is most marked near their source, usually in the critical
coastal ecotone.
Types of marine pollution around New Zealand can be subdivided into
the following five categories and each of these are discussed in turn:
(1) Eutrophic Pollutants;
(2) Heavy Metal Pollutants;
(3) Oil and Oil Derivative Pollutants;
(4) Thermal Pollution; and,
(5) Turbidity affecting Pollutants.
3.1 .1
Eutrophic pollution or 'Eutrophication' refers to extreme organic
enrichment and subsequent depletion of dissolved oxygen in bodies of water.
Potential eutrophic pollutants include sewage and other biological materials
and nutrients. It would seem paradoxical that an environment that depends on
nutrients for primary production can be polluted by excess inputs. However
nutrients will pollute a marine environment if the level of discharge of material
exceeds the capacity of the environment to assimilate it.
Eutrophication is considered by Gray (1982) to be "the most
widespread and severe form of marine pollution worldwide".
Around New
Zealand White (1982) has recognised eutrophication as an increasing problem
exceeding other types of pollution.
(A)
Sources of Pollutants.
In New Zealand agricultural use covers the greatest area of land and
the application of comparatively large quantities of organic and inorganic
fertilisers, such as phosphates and nitrates (to boast agricultural productivity),
in association with human and agricultural effluent, has resulted in enrichment
of many lowland coastal lakes and estuaries. A number of important sheltered
coastal wetlands and estuaries are increasingly eutrophic as a result (White
1982).
An example of this process is Lake Ellesmere in Canterbury (Hughes
et. al. 1973). This estuarine lake, (open periodically to the sea), has in the past
been very productive playing host to many species of esturine and freshwater
species. At present because of intensive agricultural activity in its water shed,
as well as domestic sewage discharge from the surrounding district, this lake
has become increasingly eutrophic with the appearance of toxic blue green
algae and the dissapearance of the aquatic weed beds.
Reduction of a
41
number
estuarine fish
black swan and other coastal
birds has resulted according to Hughes et al. (1973).
Agriculture is not the only cause for concern. The close proxmity of
much of New Zealand's population to the coast, especially in the northern
North Island, has meant that often untreated sewage has been discharged
directly into the coastal environment. Knox (1979) reported that ocean outfalls
into the harbours around Auckland released the combined sewage of over half
a million people.
In Wellington
sewage into Cook Strait.
similar outfalls discharge essentially raw
At other coastal sites, which lack a reticulated
sewage system, diffuse ( non point) sources of enrichment have resulted from
septic tank seepage into ground water and then into the coastal zone.
At
popular mooring locations, such as in sheltered bays, around Auckland and in
the Marlborough Sounds, localised population pressure from pleasure boats,
has resulted in eutrophication in the summer months due to the dumping of
raw sewage. (Anon. 1981).
Some types of mariculture, such as the raising of salmon in sea cages
in sheltered harbours, can also result in localised eutrophication due to the
build up of faecal matter and wasted food under the cages. It was reported to a
D.S.I.R. conference on Salmon farming at Nelson in 1985 that this has been a
major problem associated with intensive mariculture overseas.
In general eutrophication around New Zealand is limited to sites of low
turbulance such as wet lands, bays and estuaries which are either exposed to
high human
sewage inputs locally, or alternatively runoff from intensivly
farmed catchment areas. These inputs often occur in association with nutrient
inputs from forestry and agricultural based industries such as freezing works,
pulp and paper mills and dairy factories. The leachate from coastal rubbish
dumps can also result in localised enrichment and eutrophication according to
Hutchinson et. al. (1973).
(8)
Impact of Pollutant.
The effect of eutophication on marine and coastal ecosystems is often
dramatic. Gray (1982) reported the marked reduction in species diversity and
42
an inverse relationship between increasing levels of eutrophication
decreasing size of organisms in eutrophic estuaries, bays and fjords. In badly
eutrophic marine environment, the species list can be limited to three or four
small tolerant opportunists such as a number of polychaete worm species.
These species often feature a wildly fluctuating unstable population reflecting
the boom/bust ecological cycle that characterise opportunist species.
Organic enrichment and the resulting increase in turbidity will not only
asphixiate most marine animals but can tend to smother plant assemblages,
killing individuals and limiting plant production.
Plankton based marine communities, according to Gray (1982), are
thought to be mainly unstructured in regards to feeding relationships, (refer
Chapter two section 2.6) and are characterised by complex 'food web' type
feeding linkages between differient species, with weak links between trophic
levels. Eutrophication can cause these feeding relationships to become more
simplified, so that they resemble the more structured 'food chains' with only
one or two species providing the links between trophic levels.
This is an
unstable system in which 'key stone' predators or prey (refer section 2.6) can
completely control either plant or animal population density. Gray suggests
however that this affect is likely to be localised.
(C)
Management Considerations
The preceeding information would suggest that
eutrophication is
having a significant influence on some coastal areas around New Zealand. If it
is considered desirable to maintain or preserve some of these areas it will
therefore be important that:
(1)
Attempts are made to either control discharges, or treat the
eutrophic pollutants to minimise the affect they might have on the local coastal
environment.
(2)
When implimenting a M.P.A. programme, sites not
prone to
eutrophic discharges are chosen and regulatory controls are placed on the
discharge of eutrophic pollutants into these protected areas and the general
marine environment.
3.1 .2
Heavy metal pollution refers to the discharge of material that contains
pollutants such as copper, lead cadmium, zinc, fluoride, mercury and silver.
Studies by Boyden (1975), Brooks and Rumsey (1965, 1967), Hoggins and
Brooks (1973), Millhouse (1975, 1977), Nielson (1975), Nielsen and Nathan
(1975), Robertson et at. (1975) and Stoffer et al. (1982) all report elevated
levels of heavy metals, significantly above natural background levels, at a
number of coastal sites around New Zealand.
(A)
Sources Of Pollutants
Activities that liberate these pollutants into the marine environment can
be divided into four catagories and they are considered in turn:
(1) Mining;
(2) Heavy and Light Industry;
(3)Agriculture and Horticulture; and,
(4) Urbanisation.
(1)
Mining. Many mineral deposits contain heavy metals, and upon
exposure to the earth's surface, these metals can be eroded or leached out of
mine tailings. These pollutants can then be transported by surface runoff into
the local watershed, and from there into the coastal environment ,exposing
both freshwater and coastal organisms to heavy metal contamination.
Objections were lodged against gold mining at Waihi in the Coromandel
Pennsisula by the Environmental Defence Society because of this problem. In
New Zealand there are a significant number of mining operations occuring in
close proximity to the coast.
(2)
Heavy and Light Industry. Heavy industry such as the aluminium
smelter at Bluff has been reported by Boyden (1975) to be a "primary source of
large scale contamination of inshore waters." Farrier (1973) reported fluoride
levels in seawater around the Bluff smelter to be significantly higher than the
expected natural level.
Many light rural and urban industries such as
engineering firms, electroplating, pulp and paper mills, battery manufacturing;
and chemical and fertilizer plants have also been shown to be sources of
44
heavy metal contamination as sewage originating from the above sources is
often dumped at sea as sludge. Boyden (1978) suggests that this may be an
important agent for contaminating some New Zealand fish species.
These
pollutants can also be carried to the coast in surface runoff, if waste is dumped
on land or in rivers.
(3)
Agriculture and Horticulture.
The fertilizer super phosphate
(extensively used in New Zealand agriculture) has been reported to contain
high levels of cadmium.
Cadmium can find its way to the coastal zone by
surface runoff and Williams and Davies (1973) attribute the high cadmium
levels in some scallops dredged up in Tasman Bay to this source.
It has been
suggested by Boyden (1978) that other inorganic fertilisers and some
agricultural and horticultural chemicals may also contain significant amounts of
heavy metals.
(4)
Urbanisation. In heavily populated areas the widespread use of
leaded petrol and a history of use of lead based roof pai nts has been
suggested as a source of marine pollution.
Nielson (1975) attributed
increasing lead levels in marine organisms in the proximity of Wellington to
leaded petrol fumes and runoff from lead based roof paint. As a result Stoffer
et al. (1986) reported that both lead and zinc levels, in the upper reaches of
Wellington harbour were in the extreme pollution category, (based on World
Health Organisation classifications).
The light industry associated with urbanisation is likely to account for
other heavy metal pollution. For example Stoffer et a!. (1986) found levels of
copper, cadmium and mercury in the upper Wellington harbour, to be in the
moderate to strongly polluted category.
In the Avon-Heathcote estuary
adjacent to the Christchurch urban area, Millhouse (1977) reported high lead
levels in an algae grazing marine snail, estuarine crab and bivalve shellfish
species. Another study by Boyden (1975) showed high copper concentrations
in a species of sea lettuce in the upper Otago harbour and McCormacks bay in
the Avon-Heathcote estuary. The levels of copper concentration for sea lettuce
species at these sites are three to four times higher than levels found in sea
lettuces removed from
Poole Harbour in the United Kingdom (an area
classified as heavily polluted). Hoggins and Brocks (1973) also reported some
marginally elevated mercury levels in rock oysters taken from a number of
coastal locations around New Zealand.
(B)
The Impact of Heavy Metals.
The impact of heavy metals on marine organisms and systems range
from direct toxicity (resulting in organism poisoning and death), through to no
affect. These affects reflect either direct exposure to the heavy metal in the
seawater, or bio-accumulation through feeding (by the heavy metal being
concentrated in the tissue of an organism and then passed through the 'food
chain' or 'food web' to affect organisms at higher trophic levels).
In the upper reaches of Wellington harbour and possibily in the upper
reaches of harbours and estuaries around the other three main centres, the
impact on marine organisms and systems of heavy metals, are likely to be
towards the direct toxicity end of the spectrum. Nielson's (1975) finding of an
inverse correlation of higher lead levels with lower frequency of occurance;
and the actual disappearance of rock oysters and mussels in one or two areas
of Wellington harbour, would appear to support this statement.. In most other
coastal areas around New Zealand, impacts of heavy metals are likely to range
from sublethal affects through to insignificant or no impacts.
Sublethal affects of heavy metal pollution will vary with the individual
species concerned and the type and concentration of metal involved.
Common effects however on invertebrates include:
a)
reduction in growth;
b)
reduction in larval settlement and recolonisation;
c)
loss of osmoregulatory control resulting in reduced tolerance to
changes in salinity and temperature, (with a subsequent affect on
estuary, inlet and intertidal distribution); and,
d)
reduction in reproductive capacity and increase in larval
mortality.
40
Sublethal effects on fish and other vertebrates often include respiratory
and osmoregulatory problems which affect both growth and reproduction.
Heavy metals can also have behavioural affects on fish by diminishing their
ability to perceive changes in environmental salinity and temperature.
Gray (1982) reports that the first net effect of moderate heavy metal
pollution is the elimination of rare species that
are already under
environmental stress because they are at the limit of their distributional range.
He states that often smaller tolerant species are also likely to become more
abundant, at the expense of species that are more sensitive to heavy metal
contamination and this
often results in a marked change in the faunal
assemblage, (composition and relative abundance of species present at a
site).
(C)
Management Considerations.
There are relatively few studies of the affects of heavy metals in New
Zealand's waters but indications so far suggest heavy metals are having an
environmental affect with regard to species diversity especially in proximity to
urban-industrial areas (Boyden 1975).
It is therefore important for the
maintenance of species diversity and production that:
(1)
attempts are made to reduce the discharge of heavy metals in
the proximity, up and downcurrent from biologically or commercially important
marine area especially areas, selected to be part of a M.P.A. programme.
(2)
heavy metal discharges are kept to a minimum in the general
marine environment both due to the health risk to humans afrom eating heavy
metal contaminated seafood and because of the negative affects on species
composition and abundance.
3. 1 .3 Oil and Oil Based Poll utants
These pollutants includes a range of light and heavy oils and oil based
products (such as plastics) that can be discharged into the marine
environment.
(A)
Accidental discharges of oil can be the result of maritime disasters,
(especially involving oil tankers), accidents on offshore oil and gas exploration
and drilling rigs; and systems failures with coastal oil storage facilities and
refineries. Intentional discharges can be due to the disposal of waste engine
oil from ships and the cleaning out of patially full holds of oil tankers with sea
water.
Plastic build up in the marine environment can be from urban or
industrial rubbish or the use of synthetic fishing nets.
(8)
Impacts of Pollutants.
New Zealand has as yet escaped a major marine oil pollution event
such as the famous Torrey Canyon oil pollution spill studied by Smith (1968).
However New Zealand has the potential for such an oil spill disaster because
its sea lanes are used by a number of oil tankers each year, it has coastal oil
storage sites, extensive oil and gas exploration occurs in its coastal waters
and it has a major oil refinery at Marsden Point.
In the three years since 1984 there have been at least two minor
confirmed oil spills into New Zealands coastal waters. In 1984 an oil company
was fined $3,000.00 because of a spill of oil from coastal storage tanks (New
Zealand Herald 15/12/84).
In january 1987 the Christchurch Press reported a
minor oil spill from the Marsden Point Oil Refinery. Fishermen have also made
allegations that oil tankers i"egally clean out their holds with sea water in New
Zealand territorial waters, however because this practise is illegal iand occurs
out at sea its extent is hard to determine.
Environmental impacts of specific oil spill incidents in New Zealand
waters have not been documented as far as this Author is aware. However
overseas studies by Smith (1968) an, others , outline a number of potential
affects of a major spill. They are that:
1)
A comparitively small volume of oil can affect a large marine
area because it can form a thin surface layer over water (due to oils low
characteristic density);
48
2)
Oil can interact with suspended marine
ments and
entrained into bottom sediments, with the potential result of repeated fouling as
sediments may be continuously re-exposed over time;
3)
The affect on the biological community of oil spills is dependant
on the type and volume of oil spilt, the nature of any dispersants used to clean
up the spill, and the type of marine environment in which the oil is spilt;
4)
area,
Common immediate affects of major oil spills in the affected
according to Tortell (1981), include a major reduction in primary
production due to greatly reduced phytoplankton activity, destruction of kelp
forests and salt marshes and direct toxicity of intertidal organisms. The affects
on the species list is similar to gross eutrophication with the loss of rare and
sensitive species and the proliferation of resilient opportunist species with their
characteristic population instability.
5)
Oil spills can have quite major short term affects on marine
habitats, but are usually accidental one-off events.
Gray (1982) reports
relatively fast recovery from oil spills, as rapid as 3 to 5 years in coastal areas
with a medium to high energy environment, (such as found on exposed rocky
and sand shores).
According to Tortell (1981) recovery in sheltered or
enclosed bays, harbours, fiordlands or estuaries can take up to 10 years, with
oil persisting in some very sheltered spots (such as in mangrove swamps) for
decades or even centuries.
The nondegradable nature of many plastics and fishing nets means
that they can persist in the marine environment, resulting in clogging of some
marine organisms and snaging of marine animals.
(C)
Management Considerations.
Because oil spills are
acut~,
infrequent and localised they are not as
significant a polluting influence as the more chronic affects of eutrophication
and heavy metal contamination.
(1)
It is advisable however to avoid siting oil storage facilities, tanker
sea lanes, refineries or unloading terminals in close proximity to biologically
important sheltered or enclosed marine areas especially M.P.As.
(2)
Conversely M.
are
risk if they are chosen in
proximity, especially downcurrent to such facilities.
The continual chronic buildup of plastics in the marine environment is
of more everyday concern. A possible management strategy would be to limit
siting of dumps on the foreshore and encouraging fishermen and
manufacturers to use and produce more biodegradable products.
Pollution
3.1 .4
(A)
Source of Pollutants
In New Zealand thermal pollution is the result of artificially elevated
water temperatures in the vicinity of thermal power stations such as at New
Plymouth.
(8)
Impacts of Pollutants.
Most marine plants and animals require a relatively stable temperature
regime and cannot cope with extreme short term water temperature variations.
The result of thermal pollution in a localised affected area would probably be
direct mortality of fixed plants and animals and the avoidance of the area by
free swimming species.
(C)
Management Considerations.
The localised nature of marine thermal pollution suggests that this is
not a major problem in New Zealands coastal waters.
Turbidity Pollutants
(A)
Sources of Pollutants.
The unnatural discharge of material that affects the clarity (or turbidity)
of coastal waters can be considered as pollutants. This can result
from
deforestation, urban buildup and associated erosion; runoff from inert
minetailings and discharge of nontoxic insoluble industrial materials.
(8)
Impacts of Pollutants.
This type of material can only be considered as a pollutant if it has an
adverse effect on the environment. For example if it smothers marine plants
bO
and animals (such as coral or shellfish), results in lower primary production
(due to a reduction of light penetration into coastal waters),
or unnaturally
discolours water to the extent that loss of water clarity becomes aesthetically
unacceptable.
(C)
Management Considerations.
It is hard to assess the extent to which humans have increased the
discharge of often already naturally unclear water into the coastal environment.
Efforts to reduce unnaturally turbid discharges into sensitive coastal areas
such as coral reefs and some shellfish communities should still be considered,
especially in areas of high water quality and in those areas protected by a
M.P.A. programme.
3.2
HARVESTING OF NATURAL MARINE RESOURC
Chapter two gives an indication of the diversity of coastal and marine
life in New Zealand waters. Many of these species of plants and animals have
been harvested to provide food, clothing and other commodities, ever since
New Zealand was first inhabited. The first commercial venture undertaken in
New Zealand by europeans, involved the exploitation of marine mammals,
such as whales and seals. Perhaps as an indication of what was to follow,
seal exploitation resulted in the decimation of total seal population numbers
and localised extinction of populations on coastal and offshore island sites.
According to Melrose (1973) this reduction in seal numbers took less than
twenty years between 1793 and 1815.
3.2.1 Fishing
The total annual harvest of fish from New Zealand's exclusive
economic zone (E.E.Z.) is 500,000 tonnes (based on 1986 figures).This is a
very modest total catch in comparison to other coastal nations. Japan for
instance has a much smaller E.
fish in their zone.
and yet they catch many more tonnes of
This is because all fishing in New Zealand waters is
1
restricted to only 21 % of the total area of the
that
1% only 6%
suitable for inshore fishing methods because of the depth of water over the
majority of the
The history of commercial fishing within New Zealand's exclusive
economic zone (E.
) is stewn with stories of over-exploitation of natural
resources similar to the furseal saga. (In this context overexploitation refers to
the harvesting of individuals from the population stock of one species at a rate
faster than replacement into the stock by natural reproduction and recuitment,
so that the total stock cannot be maintained, and is instead steadily reduced in
size).
With the advent of modern fishing methods such as trawling, around
the turn of the century, Fenaughty et al.(1981) described the first signs of over
exploitation and depletion of fish stocks in Otago harbour.
Since then a
general decline in commercial fish stocks has been reported. It is only since
the late 1960's that the New Zealand coastal and deep sea fish species have
been exploited in earnest.
From 1965 to 1980 New Zealand total reported
domestic catch increased 230 percent. According to the Ministry of Agricultural
and Fisheries (M.A. F.) catch by foreign boats in New Zealand waters increased
by an even greater amount.
Increased fishing effort has resulted in, according to Struik (1983),
"many economically valuable ocean species bei ng drastically reduced by
over.. hunting, and in some cases having been brought close to extinction on at
least a local basis". M.A.
has documented a marked decline nationwide, in
landings of some commercially important species This has come about even
with considerable increase in fishing effort. For example Northland snapper
populations have come under increasing fishing pressure in the last ten years
and according to Sullivan and Gilbert (1978, 1979), Struik and Bray (1979),
and Mace (1981) the fishery had almost approached the point of economic
collapse.
Between 1974 and 1978 the number of snapper caught had
decreased by twenty percent annually (M.A.F. 1985) and the mean size of
snapper caught reduced by forty percent overall (Struick 1983).
M.A.
(1985) has reported similar less dramatic declines in
number and weight of fish landings for the following species; tarakihi, trevally,
rig, rock lobster and scallops, in a number of New Zealand coastal areas. The
main reason for the declines is thought to be excessive harvesting pressure as
a result of commercial fishing effort.
Concern has also been expressed by Gardner (1982) about the
damaging effect that some fishing methods, notably bottom trawling, is having
on the important seafloor habitat, due to physical disruption.
Recreational
fishing and especially collection of tohoroa and rock lobster has also been
reported to have caused a decline in some of these fish stocks.
(A)
THE IMPACT OF FISHING ON THE MARINE ENVIRONMENT
The affect on all marine species as a result of recreational and
commercial harvesting would appear to be significant.
This preceeding
statement is supported by a number of long term species diversity and stock
size studies undertaken in our coastal waters.
A consistent and dramatic
decline in species diversity and stock number of both commercial and non
commercial species was demonstrated in regards to species entering a coastal
estuary in the Marlborough Sounds between 1971 and 1978 (Struik and Bray
1979). A long term coastal travel survey in the Bay of Plenty has also shown
similar results. Struik (1983) states that;
So many coastal fisheries in New Zealand have
been overfished that most if not all food chains
have been altered and are currently out of
balance, and there is little evidence of other
species filling the gap left by overexploited
species.
According to Larkin (1977) and Reigier and Cowell (1972) in a mixed
species fishery significant fishing effort results in:
(1)
a reduction in the stability of aquatic ecosystems by affecting
food chains and predator prey relationships;
(2)
elimination or reduction in either longer lived and less fertile
species and the older age classes of a marine fish species; and,
(3)
replacement of less fecund species by short lived more ferti
opportunist species.
Where there is overexploitation of fish stocks, these problems are compounded
by reduction in stocks of even the more fertile opportunistic fish species.
(8)
MANAGEMENT CONSIDERATIONS
Currently M.A.
is trying to redress the problem of overexploitation of
some commercial fish resources by a programme of policy, legislative and
regulation reform that has resulted in a restructuring of the fishing industry.
Changes include;
(1)
vesting of ownership of fish stocks in the Crown and,
(2)
the limiting of fishing operators and catch restrictions for
commercial fish species stocks,
by the issuing of 'Individual
Transferable Ouota's' (LT.O's.).
(I. T.Q's. refer to the granting of rights to take a set weight annually of a
fish species for which quota is held).
The set weight of fish allocated for
harvesting from each species depends upon the 'Total Allowable Catch'
(T.A.C.) for that species. The T.A.C. is set by M.A.F., with regard to whether the
fish stock is large enough so that it can sustain over the long term present
levels of fishing effort; or whether the fish stock has been under- or
over-exploited, and fishing efforts need to be increased or reduced so that the
stock will reach a desired sustainable level.
Even if these amendments lead to the sustained harvesting of stocks,
of some fish species, commercial and recreational fishing is still likely to
profoundly influence the characteristic of marine ecosystems because it is
going to select against less productive species by a process of artifical
selection, according to Reigier and Cowell (1972).
b4
Larkin (1977) reports that even in regards to harvesting of a single
species
a sustainable level, fishing can affect the characteristic of that
species. Most populations of a fish species show genetic variability, with local
subpopulations being adapted to their local environment.
Some
subpopulations are likely to be less productive and hence are likely to be
depressed or elimated at the expences of other subpopulations, by artifial
selection pressure of fishing effort, even when the total population of that
species is not reduced. The result is loss of interspecies genetic diversity.
Because of these factors M.P .A. designation would compliment other
fisheries management strategies to protect fish stocks by counteracting the
reduction in systems stability, changes in species composition and loss of intra
and inter species genetic diversity resulting from fishing pressure.
3.2.2 Harvesti
Weed
As well as the harvesting of marine animals there is increasing interest
in the harvesting of some species of marine plants.
The main interest at
present is in the harvesting of sea weed species such as bull kelp. These
species are harvested to provide the raw material for such diverse products as
ice cream, nitrogen fertilizer, soft drinks, comestics, paint, medicine, beer,
leather tanning products, and agar for the growing of bacteria and fungi
cultures. This industry in New Zealand is comparitively small but if harvesting
of sea weeds took place on a large scale the affect on the marine environment
could be quite significant at a local level. This is because sea weeds play an
important role:
(1)
in coastal primary production and have foundation status in
many coastal food chains (as discussed in chapter two section 2.7.6.);
(2)
as a structural habitat and protective cover for many other
species;
(3)
in stabilizing sand and gravel movements on the local sea floor
environment; and,
(4)
by acting as a baffle to dissipate wave energy and therebye
providing a natural source of coastal erosion protection (Water and
Soil Conservation Authority (N.W.A.S.C.A.) 1983).
MANAGEMENT CONSIDERATIONS
Harvesting of seaweeds should be managed so that this resource is
not exploited to the detriment of the coastal system and human use of this
system.
3.3
PHYSICAL MODI
ONS
Chapter two indicated the importance of much of the coastal ecotone
(transition zone between land and sea), in relation to the marine environment
because of;
(1)
the diversity of species found there,
(2)
the critical role some coastal areas, such as wetlands, play in
marine system production, and
(3)
the important role for reproduction etc. that coastal areas play in
the life history of many marine organisms.
3
.1 Coastal Wellan
Some areas of the coastal zone are of even greater significance for
production and reproduction. These are the coastal wetlands including coastal
swamps, estuaries, harbours, inlets and fjords.
Internationally Mann (1982)
describes such areas as having much greater importance for the total marine
system, than would be expected given the small percentage of total area they
occupy.
The last two hundred years in New Zealands history has seen many of
these coastal wetlands irreversible changed in some way, as in the following
examples:
(1)
Many of New Zealands relatively shallow coastal estuaries,
swamps and inlets have been either drained or infilled to provide land for
agricultural, industrial, commercial and urban development; or for roading and
airport development , such as around Wellington and Auckland.
This has
totally destroyed the important role that these areas played in the marine
environment.
(2)
Some inlets have been used as rubbish dumps and hence have
become filled and polluted.
(3)
Still others, such as the Moutere Inlet, have had their inlet closed
and then have been converted into freshwater reservoirs for urban drinking
water or irrigation.
(4)
Many estuaries have had their sea water inlet size artificially
changed and their catchment area modified by human influence, with a result
that estuary characterics such as salinity and temperature distribution patterns,
sedimentation and current circulation patterns, total tidal volume and other
parameters have been drastically altered.
(5)
Some inlets and estuaries have been dredged, so that instead of
having a relatively flat gently sloping floor they have been deepened to provide
for sea lanes and to improve natural harbours for shipping.
(6)
At Lake Grassmere the estuarine lake has been isolated from
the sea and has been developed as a site for salt reclamation and salmon
farming.
There are also proposals to develop other shallow wetlands for types
of mariculture such as (marron) prawn farms.
A National Water and Soil Conservation Authory (N.W.A.S.C.A.) study
(1983) estimates that as a result of the changes mentioned above, New
Zealand has less than ten percent of the total number of coastal wetlands, that
were recorded at the time of european colonisation, still remaining. According
to Knox (1980), of the remaining ten percent,one in ten is either moderately or
grossly polluted. There are also regional trends apparent, with fewer coastal
wetlands remaining in the North Island in comparison to the South Island.
The N.W.A.S.C.A. study states "it is generally accepted that, in New
Zealand, coastal wetland systems such as estuaries, inlets, coastal lagoons,
mangrove swamps and shallow harbours are seriously reduced in both
quantity and natural quality and are in fact an endangered habitat type".
MANAGEMENT CONSIDERATIONS
Due to the extensive loss of coastal wetlands, and their importance as
habitats and critical sites for production and species reproduction, it is highly
likely that coastal wetland decline has had a major impact on New Zealand's
marine environment. In New Zealand there is la ack of empirical evidence to
prove such a link between decline in coastal wetlands and species productivity
and divisity. However studies overseas by Odum (1970) show a very strong
correlation between loss of coastal mangroves and estuaries and decline in
coastal fish stocks off the coast of California.
preceeding discussion would point to the remaining
wetlands being an important and endangered natural habitat, that require
preservation by statutory protection to maintain their critical role in the marine
system for many marine and coastal species.
Protection of many of these
areas in a M.P .A.programme would seem appropiate.
3.3.2 Coastal Protection Works
Modification of the coastal foreshore by erection of erosion control
structures such as groins, jetties, seawalls, bulkheads, revetments,
breakwaters; beach renourishment by sediment dumping, and other activities
such as beach sand mining, can drastically change the local sedimentations
patterns in the coastal marine system. These activities can either encourage
erosion or accretion of sediment, both on and off shore and down current by
modifying local wave activity and sediment supply. As a result the local coastal
marine habitat can be extensively changed by, for example, the changing of a
hard rocky shore into a soft shore environment and visa versa. This
significantly affects the local community structure.
MANAGEMENT CONSIDERATIONS
Most New Zealand empirical studies into coastal protection works
focus on the physical aspects of the project and ignore the likely biological
impact of such activity. For example most studies are limited to the physical
and economic impact that such activity has on local erosion and accretion
patterns. Not withstanding this, careful study of the likely affects of such
activities are desirable where they are likely to imfringe on important marine
habitats, especially those habitats deemed worthy of protection.
In the coastal waters around New Zealand the combined impact of
pollution, harvesting and coastal modification appears to be causing significant
changes in species diversity and abundance in some areas.
Rapport et al.
(1985) would describe the likely changes in marine community structure as
'retrogression'. 'Retrogression' refers to a shift in species composition towards
often introduced marine species better adapted to harsher environmental
pressures (such as pollution and fishing), and away from native and rarer
species, or fish less well adapted to a harsher regime. In very badly affected
areas such as grossly polluted sites marine communities are likely to become
simplier and less stable, with fewer species and greater population fluctuation.
Chapter Four will examine the implication of and benefits from
reversing such changes for society.
60
E
SUMM
RY
Chapter one introduces New Zealands marine environment as both a
natural habitat and a natural complex.
Chapter Two outlines the unique features and characteristics of this
environment, with specific regard to management, including the potential
application of a Marine Protected Areas (M.P.As.) programme. A description of
New Zealand's marine species and habitat is also provided.
Chapter Three examines the conflict between species and habitats
maintenance; and marine system pollution, harvesting of marine species, and
physical modification
of the coastal zone).
Chapter Three concludes that
these activities have a significant detrimental impact on marine and coastal
species diversity and habitats at a local and perhaps even a regional scale.
This Chapter examines the rational of a management strategy for
conserving and perhaps preserving some of New Zealand's marine habitats
and species. The rational will be presented in terms of:
(A)
An expressed desire for marine conservation within protected
areas; and,
(8)
The beneftis and costs of a Marine Protected Areas programme.
This chapter concludes that:
(1)
Conservation and preservation of New Zealands habitats and
species under a protected area programme is increasingly being recognised,
at least on land, as a legitirmate social aim.
61
(2)
Marine habitats
<b:n...
".,y,,,-,V
are substantially under
in comparison to conservation of terrestrial habitats and species.
(3)
Conservation and Preservation of important components of New
Zealand's marine environment within a Marine Protected Areas (M.P.A)
programme will have a number of actual and potential benefits that include:
A)
B)
C)
sustainable utilization of harvestable marine resources;
preservation of marine genetic diversity;
provision of research opportunities for science and
management;
D)
E)
(4)
provision of recreational and tourism activities; and,
provision of non-use benefits.
Actual and Potential Costs incurred by a M.P.A. programme
relate to:
A)
applying harvesting restrictions and controls in protected
areas;
B)
applying controls on significant marine pollution affecting
protected areas;
C)
applying
controls
of
significant
physical
modification of the coastal zone affecting protected areas; and,
D)
Costs incurred in setting up, enforcing and administering
a M.P.A programme.
(5)
The extent of costs will be in relation to the scale and type of
protection deemed appropriate.
(6)
Many of the
and benefits of marine conservation are both
difficult to compare or alternatively are unknown. Decision making in relation
to site selection based solely on cost/benefit analysis is therefore unlikely to be
appropriate.An approach to maximise the achievable benefits of a marine
protection, while at the same time trying to minimise the costs would seem to
be more valid.
6
o
R
N
Increasingly there appears to be a belief both here and overseas,
among those involved in either the use, study and management of the marine
environment, that the benefits of implimenting some kind of M.P.A. programme
outweighs the costs incurred from such a programme. These same individuals
express the concern that economic and social gains resulting from the use of
the 'marine resource complex', are not compensating for the damage that such
types of use is having on the marine environment.
Since the late 1960's private and government groups and agencies in
New Zealand including; the Fisheries Division of the Ministry of Agricultural
and Fisheries (MAF), the Marine Division of the Ministry of Transport (M.O.T.),
the Zoology department of Auckland University, Parks and Reserves Division
of the Lands and Survey Department, the Wildlife Division of Internal Affairs,
Commission for the Environment,
Royal Forest and
Bird Society,
Environmental Defense Society and numerous other environmental and
recreational groups have all advocated or been directly involved in the setting
up of a M.P.A. programme for marine conservation.
Bjorklund (1974) reports that internationally there has been
increasingly vocal calls for marine conservation involving a M.P.A program.
Major conferences where this position has been strongly advocated include;
all world conferences on National Parks from 1962 onwards, the Eleventh
Pacific Science Congress (Japan 1962), the Regional Symposium on
Conservation (New Caledonia 1971) the 'U.N. Conference on the Human
Environment (Stockholm 1972) and the International Conference on Marine
Parks and Reserves (Japan 1975).
64
protection
somewhat
marine natural habitats can still
considered
a new phenomena however in comparison to protection of land
based natural habitats.
land based habitats have until recently been the
primary focus of 'protected natural area' (P.N.A.) programmes they will be
considered first to give a background perspective to M.P .A. programmes.
PROTECTION
4.1
LAND
NATU
On land the practise of setting aside areas, for conservation or
preservation in their natural state, has a long history stretching over 2000
years.
Talbot (1982) reports that protected native forest areas were
established in India before the time of Christ. The national park concept is
itself over 115 years old with the creation of Yellow Stone National Park in the
United States of America in 1872. The first national park in New Zealand,
Tongariro National Park, is itself over 100 years old, and subsequently this
country has developed an extensive system of 1500 separate Government
administered terrestial parks and reserves.
This system of land based
protected areas covers four and half million hectare or sixteen percent of New
Zealand's total land area.
Dingwell (1982) reports that the initial Government and public desire
for the setting aside of natural areas within parks and reserves was motivated
by mainly aesthetic considerations. Such considerations include the desire to
preserve as a national asset unique natural landscapes, natural curiousities
and scenery.
In more recent years the New Zealand parks and reserves
programme has focussed on the protection of a diverse range of natural
habitats and native species including both endangered and abundant native
species and habitats.
1977, provides the clearest legislative expression
intent in regards to the establishment of a 'protected areas' programme in New
Zealand. This statute expresses as one of its principle purposes the use of a
'natural protected area' programme to ensure as far as possible;
'the survival of all indigenous species of flora and fauna, both rare and
common, in their natural communities and habitats, and the
preservation of representative samples of all classes of natural
ecosystems and landscapes, which in the aggregate gave New
Zealand its own recognizable character',
A fuller discussion of the rational for such protection, can be found by
reference to Molloy and Wilson (1986) and Gun and Edmonds (1986) in
'Environmental Ethics: A New Zealand Contribution' edited by (John Howell).
On land at least these appears to be implicit acceptance that the
ecological, cultural, recreational, aesthetic, scientific and educational value of
protected natural areas outweighs any cost of their protection.
THE PROTECTION OF MARINE
NATURAL
ITATS
New Zealand is often described as being in the conservation forefront
however this is inacurate in regards to marine resources. New Zealand
Government and its agencies have been very slow to impliment a Marine
Protected Areas (M.P,A) programme. Overseas Bjorklund (1974) reports that
the first marine reserve was set up over seventy years ago and by 1970 64
countries had implimented some form of M.P.A.. In New Zealand it was not
until 1971, with the passing of the Marine Reserves Act (1971), that any areas
of the marine environment could be set aside in protected areas.
The first
marine reserve did not come into existence until four years later in 1975, with
the gazetting of theCape Rodney to Okakari Point Marine Reserve.
6
time
publication only one further marine reserve
created with the gazetting of the Poor Knight Islands Marine Reserve although
planning is well advanced on the setting up of a number of new marine
reserves including the proposed Sugar Loaf Island Marine Reserve near New
Plymouth.
In addition two further marine areas adjacent to the Mimiwhangata and
Tawhawanui
penisula have protected status, similar to that of a marine
reserve designation. Protection in these areas has been granted by use of the
Harbours Act (1950) and Fisheries Act (1983) however this is on a short term
basis only.
New Zealand also has a number of maritime parks, but
protection of natural habitats within these areas is still limited to above the
coastal mean high water mark (M.H.W.M.) so that maritime park status does
not constitutent a M.P.A .
The result is that only a minute fraction of New Zealand's marine
habitats are protected within a Marine Protected Area programme, even when
only the relatively small area of sea over the continental shelf is considered.
The allocation of marine habitats, as part of New Zealand's natural
environment, to a 'protected areas' programme (including parks and reserves),
is also insignificant in comparison to the allocation of natural habitats on land.
A possible implication of this is that there are fewer benefits and more costs
associated with a M.
programme when compared
with a land based
programme.
The next section will to some extent examine the validity of this view by
assessing the likely benefits and costs of a Marine Protected Areas (M.P.A.)
programme.
7
4.
B
The benefits of a Marine Protected Area program (M.P.A program) can
be discussed under four major headings as follows:
1)
maintenance of marine harvestable resources;
2)
preservation of marine genetic diversity;
3)
research and management of marine resources; and,
4)
provision for non-material needs of society.
At this point it should be both noted that the individual benefits of
marine protection are very much site related and it is unlikely that all classes of
beneftis can be achieved simultaneously as some classes of benefits are
mutually exclusive.
(A)
Critical Areas
Critical coastal and marine habitats (such as mangroves, estuaries,
salt marshes, mudflats, reefs and kelp forests) of vital importance to marine
systems have been identified by Odum (1971, 1978, 1984), Ray (1975), Mann
(1975) and Lear and Turner (1977). These areas provide critical sites of
primary
production,
reproduction
and
recruitment,
which
has
a
disproportionately large flow on effect into the coastal environment.
Odum (1984) states that "the protection of the identified critical coastal
habitats from damage or reduction in size, would be important in ensuring
population stability of marine species for harvesting. It would also assist in the
long term maintenance of harvesting of commerical and recreational species,
by maintaining species recruitment and production".
The extent of harvesting benefits occuring from protection of critical
habitats within M.P.A's.depends on the recognition of what are appropriate
8
habitats, and understanding the ecology of such sites so that relevant controls
to protect these habitats can be implemented.
It also depends on proper
management of the harvestable resource as a whole, for example, by placing
limits on harvesting of fishery stocks at a sustainable level.
Sustainable utilisation of marine resources is clearly recognised
overseas as a benefit of a M.P.A. programme. In Indonesia, for example, two of
the principle aims of marine protected areas is to protect productive habitat and
to aid in the replenishment of harvestable fish stocks (Soegiorto et al. 1984).
(8)
Non Critical Areas
Where a marine area is not critical to species production and
recruitment there may still be advantages in M.P.A. status in regards to
harvesting in adjacent areas.
Mac Diarmid (1986) unpublished) and
McCormick (1986) reported a significant increase in the abundance and size of
shellfish and fish species found in the Cape Rodney to Okakari Point Marine
Reserve in comparison to almost identical habitats outside the reserve. For
instance the abundance of the reef fish Cheilodactylus spectabilis was found to
be three times greater in the reserve, and there were significantly more
individuals of this species in the larger size class McCormick (1986).
The
increase in size and abundance of marine species within reserves is,
according to Ritchie (1980), likely to have a spill over effect into adjacent
waters due to the radiative movement of many fish species. Other benefits for
the sustainable harvesting of marine species can be discussed under section
4.3.2 as follows:
Of Maintaining Genetic Diversity
Chapter two outlines the marine environment as being genetically both
very rich due to the unique morphologies and physiologies found in marine
69
organisms.
Significant genetic diversity occurs both across marine . . , . . . . .
4'-1.'-4'-'
and within a single species across geographical clines of distribution
according to Polunin (1983) and Selanders (1976).
Chapter three suggests that some of this rich pool of genetic diversity is
under threat.
In the New Zealand marine environment loss of intraspecies
genetic diversity is likely to be occuring from pollution, coastal modification and
harvesting of marine resources. The loss of Interspecies genetic diversity (the
more dramatic extinction of whole species) may also be occuring due to
extensive modifications of the coastal environment such as reclamation; or the
extensive pollution of wetland (known sites of potential endemism).
The benefits of preserving this inter and intra species genetic diversity
can be grouped under the three headings of systems stability, mariculture; and
the chemical and pharmaceutical industry.
(A)
Systems Stability.
Most species dependon the maintenance of a certain amount of
genetic diversity (varibility), as this increases their ability to adapt to changing
environmental conditions (such as the introduction of new pests, diseases and
other environmental stresses).
With out genetic variability species cannot
evolve successfully to cope with these changes, and hence are succeptable to
marked population declines, instability and possibly extinction when faced with
such changes. If a keystone species is being effected long term use of the
marine resource can be threatened due to possible repercussions on other
dependent species.
The necessary genetic information to cope with environmental
changes may be quite rare, found only in a small localised species and
subpopulation of a species adapted to unique conditions.
Where human
activity diminishes such genetic information this may have serious future
repercussions according
..;JU'I::iul'l::'..;J
are
Polunin (1983), even if initially other populations or
by human activity.
The need for protection of genetic diversity to help maintain stable
marine systems is highlighted by the documented evidence of changes
occuring in the marine environment which may need to be adapted to.
Changes include enhanced pesticide, heavy metal and hydrocarbon levels in
most of the worlds coastal zones and in New Zealand waters, the trial
introduction of new and exotic species such as the estuarine marron prawn
into some enclosed New Zealand coastal wetlands and the proposal to
introduce exotic edible Japanese kelp into some coastal waters.
(8)
Mariculture.
Wild stocks of different marine plants and animals have always been
the raw material for mariculture (farming of marine species). In New Zealand
there recently has been a marked increase of commercial and academic
interest in the aquaculture of marine organisms such as sea cage salmon,
oysters, scallops, paddle crabs, mussels, rock lobsters, marron prawn, shrimps
and agarophytes (agar producing seaweeds).
Riddell (1983) reports that since interest in mariculture is expanding
rapidly the value of maintaining wild genetic resources for the improvement of
selected strains can also be expected to increase markedly. Wild stocks can
be used to provide ovum and sperm material (as many maricultured species
are not yet fully domesticated), and they can also be introduced to improve
growth rates and disease resistance of domesticated species.
Already Prescott Allen (1984) reports the introduction of new genetiC
information from wild stocks has increased growth rates in clams and disease
resistance in oysters overseas. In New Zealand wild strains of oyster are being
71
in an attempt
introduces
(to the oyster parasite) into
theFoveaux Strait oyster beds that were affliced in the 1986/87 season.
(C)
Importance to the Chemical and Pharmaceutical Industry.
Marine organisms represents a resource of organic and biochemical
diversity unmatched in the terrestial environment according to Baker and
Murphy (1970).
This is attributed, according to Riddell (1983), to the fact that
there are more significant differiences in the morphology and physiology of
marine organism in comparison to land animals and plants because of the
following:
(1) a" of the thirty recognised animal 'phyla,' have marine
representatives. In addition half these 'phyla' are exclusively
marine, and several 'phyla' are predominantly marine
In comparison
the apparently enormous number of terrestial species belong to only a
few major 'classes'(such as insects), of only a few 'phylum'.
(2) many of the classes of marine animals have evolutionary, histories
independent from all other 'classes' or even
taxonomic 'families',
stretching back hundreds of millions of years. In comparison terrestial
'classes' (such as birds, reptiles and mammals) have a much shorter
independent evolutionary history.
(3) marine environmental problems and habitats are uniquely different
from terrestial problems.
The importance of marine organisms, to the chemical and
pharmaceatical industries, for raw materials is not surprising then. The list of
major pharmaceutical chemical and industrial products developed from marine
organisms is already extensive.
Medicine derived or sourced from marine
plants and animals are currently used to treat forms of cancer, diabetes,
leprosy, viruses, bone disease, arthritis, bacterial infections, parasites and
infections;
as pain killers, immunosuppressiants, blood coagulants
anticoagulants; to
for bacterial infections and as research tool into brain
function.
Marine organism based products are also used as insecticides and in
in the food and textile industries, for example, as adhesives, emulsifiers,
stabilisers and food emulsifiers.
These are only a few examples of the many potential uses of marine
based products, as Riddell (1983) reports that research world wide into marine
biochemistry for useful products is still in its infancy, compared with research
into biologically active and useful compounds from terrestial organisms. This
is probably because of greater problems of research access to marine
organisms and a much shorter history of interest and research in the marine
environment.
In New Zealand there have been few studies in this field. Dr Munro
and Blunt's (University of Canterbury Chemistry Department) work on the
antimicrobial and antivival activity of marine biochemical compounds (found in
sponges, ascidians and some other marine organisms), is a notable exception.
The huge potential value of as yet undiscovered compounds derived
from marine organisms is a compelling rational for protecting genetic diversity
of marine species.
c Diversity
ons
Genetic diversity in marine species is potentially extremely valuable in
maintaining ecological systems stability for harvesting, assisting mariculture
and protecting sources of valuable biochemical compounds.
The present range of genetic diversity is a resource that has taken
hundreds of millions years to developed. Once it is reduced, due to short term
economic expediancy (such as unnecessary pollution, coastal modification or
excessive harvesting of natural resources), it can never
replaced and many
of the benefits of high diversity may be lost.
The protection of a range of representative marine habitats and sites
known to contain high rates of endemism around New Zealand may be crucial
in helping to protect this valuable resource.
Management
Marine
urces
This study expresses concern at the ecological damage being done to
New Zealand's marine environement.
evidence of
Much of this concern stems from
declines in commercial fish landings, coastal pollution and
reclamation, and documented overseas experience of the subsequent affects
resulting from marine pollution and reclamation.
The preservation of a range of natural marine habitats free from
exploitive interference, would be of great value in guaging the influence that
human activity in New Zealand is having on the marine environment. The
value of such areas would be in in their role as a biological yardstick, to enable
human influences in adjacent waters to be identified and separated out from
naturally occuring environmental fluxations within the protected area.
Fisheries managers, for example, when setting total allowable catches
(T.A.C's) of fish need to know if changes to the fish stock are due to human
fishing pressure or other factor, to enable fisheries controls and catch levels to
be set appropriately.
The benefits of protected areas to fisheries management, pollution
control and other users of the marine environment has already been
recognised in a 1985 report by the Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries.
4 ..4
The coastal I marine environment is important to society because it
also helps fulfil more esoteric human needs in addition to the rather more basic
material needs (such as food).
Marlow (1954) describes in a 'Hiearchy of
Needs' how humans strive to meet cognitive and aesthetic needs, once the
most basic needs for food, drink, shelter, security and human interactions have
been met.
These needs according to Marlow (1954) includes the need too
know; understand and explore new situations and get involved in challenging
new experiences, and to experience grandeur and beauty.
These more esoteric needs are now examined under the broad
headings of 'Quest for Knowledge' and 'Recreational and Tourism"
(A)
Quest for knowledge
In meeting societies need to know and understand the environment
around us, M.P.A. are often considered to be indespensable for understanding
the marine environment through research. Pearsall (1984) states that M.P.A.'s
are the only valid laboratories where marine ecological studies of population
dynamics, species interactions, long term succession, speciation and other
natural processes, can realistically be conducted with out the results being
invalid due to outside human influence.
The setting aside of New Zealands
first marine reserve at Leigh for science suggests that protection of marine
areas for pure research purposes is already accepted.
Other benefits in terms of appreciation and understanding of the
marine environment can arise from using M.P.A's as a educational focus for
specific groups and the general publi,c when learning about the marine
environement. Education programmes involving marine protected areas could
be run in the same way that current
interperative programmes are run in
conjuction with National
value
and
I';':&..lIr'~I&..:Io.:
11-U:••
marine protected areas for research, management and
education is undoubtedly going to increase in the future as society becomes
more dependent on, and interested in, the natural resources of the sea.
(B)
Recreation and Tourism.
Recreation in a natural environment is, according to Barker .e1 al (1979)
one way in which many of societies nonmaterial needs can be satisfied.
Molloy et al. (1986) goes further in suggesting that, for many individuals, the
natural environment may be the only source of basic experiences, as these
cannot be provided by an urban environment.
Molloy et
ill. relates that the
'Wilderness Experiences', (recreation in an untamed natural environment),
provides the needed challenges to survival, offers the excitement of
exploration and discovery and can provide a perspective on our place in
nature.
Although Molloy .e1 ill. (1986) was refering mainly to recreation in the
mountains, forests and native bush of New Zealand, a similar 'wilderness
experiences' providing exploration, discovery and challenges to survival can
be achieved by recreation in the coastal and marine region.
Recreation activities in this environment can be relatively non
disruptive (eg. swimming, snorkling, scuba diving, underwater photography,
painting, sailing, tidal pool foraging and appreciation of the coastal scenery).
Alternatively some recreational activities have the potential to be more
environmentally disruptive and in extreme cases can be incompatible with
conservation. Activities such as recreational line, net and spear fishing; shell,
shellfish and crayfish col/ecting, high density boating, speed boating; and
beach buggy and trail bike racing on beachs are examples that could fall in
this category.
The application of M.
status to marine areas can greatly enhance
recreational appeal of many marine and coastal areas for three reasons:
(1)
There is higher diversity, abundance and size of marine species
found in protected areas compared with comparable unprotected
areas according
to
Ritchie (1980), M.A.
MacDiamid,
(1986)
McCormack (1986),
(1985) and a number of New Zealand Scuba
Diving Associations. Consequently recreational interest to snorklers,
swimmers, underwater photographers, tidal pool foragers and scuba
divers and others is enhanced.
(2)
Some Marine Protected Areas can provide a focus for the
provision of recreational amenities and facilities (scuba tank filling
stations, boat launching facilities, changing facilities, toilets, ecetera)
and this centralisation of facilities helps people more easily enjoy the
recreational use of the marine environment.
(3)
M.P.A. designation and associated administrative, educational
and research activities can focus public attention of the protected area
and result in increased interpretive information being proveded about
the resource.
This in turn can assist the publics use and general
enjoyment of marine areas.
There is already ample evidence to back up the increasing
recreational importance of M.P.A. generally from New Zealand's two existing
marine reserves.
A 1984 recreational survey, by the Lands and Survey
Department, showed that 14,000 people visited the Cape Rodney to Okakari
Point Marine Reserve in a six week period in the 1983/84 summer, 58 percent
of whom were scuba divers. The vast majority of these scuba divers reported
that they were attracted to the reserve by easy access, and the unique diving
conditions provided by the large range and abundance of marine species that
could
seen.
milarly the Poor Knights Island Marine Reserve, (always
popular with divers), has seen a massive increase in scuba diving activity
since its inception, to the point that it is now known among divers, as probably
the best scuba diving spot in New Zealand (M.A.F. 1982).
Even at New Zealand's two private 'marine protected areas', at
Tawharanui Pensinsula and Mimiwhangata Pensinsular (where protection of
the marine environment is less rigerous), recreational activity has enjoyed a
major increase since their private designation as coastal parks (Mimiwhangata
.R. 1982). At these two sites and at the Poor Knights Island Marine Reserve
their is also scope for limited disruptive recreation (such as line and spear
fishing for certain species in designated areas of the M.P.A's) along with
nondisruptive use.
In New Zealand there is a real trend toward increasing recreational use
of the marine environment and this is shown for example by increasing boat
sale and diving club membership. This is matched, at least in the western
world, by the increasing interest in, and time for recreation in natural areas
reported by (Lucas 1984), therefore the provision of some M.P.A's partly to
enhance recreational use of the coastal and marine environment would clearly
be of benefit to such users.
Internationally some countries
have also gained benefits from
promoting M.P.A's and their recreational use, as tourist attractions.
The
promotion of the instance the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park in Australia and
coral reef reserves in Indonesia, are two examples.
In New Zealand there is possibly potential for tourist promotion based
on M.P.A's as their designation could provide at least regional benefits in some
areas such as Northland, by providing an enhanced natural attraction to attract
visitors.
When examaining the benefits of recreational use of M.P.A's it should
however be remembered that intensive recreation use may be inappropriate in
some M.
Ray (1976) and Lucus (1984) note that the disturbance created
by associated amenities on the foreshore and the congregation of large
number of people at a M.P.A. may conflict with the major goals and objectives
of that individual area, and can result in the other benefits of protection being
canceled out. The benefits of recreation therefore should be considered on a
case by case basis with regard to other benefits.
(0)
Non Use Benefits.
There exists another class of benefits provided by M.P.A's, even when
the benefiting individual does not visit or use the resource directly. Pearsall
(1984) has called this type of benefit of protected areas 'Inabsentia Benefits'.
Such
benefits include vicarious benefits arising from some one elses visit,
such as enjoying articles, books, films, photography or painting based on a
M.P.A .. Another type of vicarious benefit would be 'Bequest Value'. Bequest
value, a term coined by Krutilla (1967) refers to the altruistic benefits recieved
by an individual on behalf of future generations from knowing that future
generations wi" get the opportunity to enjoy the legacy of a natural protected
area.
(E)
Cultural and Spiritual Benefits.
M.P.A's can also fulfil a percieved need which is not necessarily a
benefit for society as such, but is instead more of a moral position. This moral
position promoted by such individuals as Leopold (1949), Passmore (1974)
and Graber (1976), is that the conservation and preservation of the natural
environment is a moral good (right), because natural systems have intrinsic
value independent from their value for human use. This type of position is
often culturally or religiously based.
Such a position may involve many
philosophical problems, not the least of which is the question what is intrinsic
value?
Does intrinsic value apply at the level of individual organisms,
populations, species or infact to the entire biosphere and how do you measure
it? (Scott 1986).
For example much of modern society in New Zealand
lacks
understanding of the natural environment due to the nature of modern society.
However despite this many individuals place an intrinic value on nature,
shown by the clearly expressed view that endangered marine species (such as
the blue whale and yellowed eyed penguin) should be protected from
extinction. This is an expressed wish to see species and probably habitats
preserved, independent of likely individual benefits.
Another New Zealand example of this type of moral position is the
traditional Maori belief that birds, fish, insects and plants and infact some
inanimate objects possess 'mana' or a life force essentially similar to human
beings. Orbell (1985) relates with regards to the Maori how,
'their closeness to nature and their dependence on it, and
their profound knowledge of plants and animals led to the
belief in 'tapus', the sacredness of other life forms and the
landscape itself'.
This view was expressed in the traditional use of the marine environment by
an almost culturally innate sense of conservation, or Ira hui', which involved
rules governing fishing season, fishing area, methods and behaviour while
fishing.
4.4
E
The preceding sections considers the real and potential benefits of a
M.
programme. It must be remembered that many of these benefits are site
specific and may also only be achieved in either the short or long term. Some
classes of benefit may be mutually exclusive at some sites. Some benefits
may also depend on an individuals personal values and perceptions, as such
they are subjective and difficult to value.
In addition to providing benefits, a M.P.A. programme will produce a
number of real and potential costs. Costs incurred from potection will fall into
two main categories. The first category include the costs incurred to society
and individuals as a result of protection limiting individuals actual or potential
ability to use the resource. The second category includes the costs incurred to
society as a result of the implimentation, administration and ongoing
mangement of a M.P.A. programme.
4.4.1
Costs
Limitation
Use
The costs of limitation of use affect those individuals whose actual or
potential use of a M.P.A. is curtailed by protection. The extent of the costs
incurred vary greatly (on a site by site basis) depending on; the present and
potential use of the site, the site's characteristics, the availability of similar
sites, and what level of protection (types of restrictions on use) are deemed
appropriate for that site.
Types of restrictions that may be imposed and their cost can be
considered under several headings.
(A)
Fishing Restrictions.
The protected status of most new M.P.A.'s would almost certainly
81
require placing restrictions on commercial and possibly
nal fishing.
The degree of fishing restriction may vary from a total ban in all areas of a
M.
, to a ban on some methods in part of the area.
The degree of
restriction deemed appropriate will depend on the objects and goals of the
individual M.P.A .. The total cost of protection will also depend on what current
and potential future fishing opportunity is curtailed
At present individual fishermen (and perhaps society by paying higher
prices for fish), will suffer the major costs of fishing restrictions. Communities
based on the fishing industries may also suffer social impacts such as
unemployment, social upheaval ecetera as a result of large scale restrictions
on fishing, however as an aside this author believes that any social disruption,
resulting from M.P.A. fishing restrictions, will be minor in comparison to the
disruption
resulting from the restructuring that has already gone on in the
fishing industry.
If compensation was paid by the Government to fishermen whose
present activities were curtailed by a M.P.A. designation, then society as a
whole would suffer the costs of curtailment. Compensation, however is not
paid at present.
(8)
Pollution Controls
At present there is no legal means of enforcing reduction of pollution
affecting a M.P.A. to any greater extent than for discharges into the general
marine environment. Chapter Three's findings suggest that such controls will
be appropriate in M.P.A's.. If this recommendation is adopted, some pollutors
will incur costs from having to treat,. reduce, relocate or stop pollutant
discharges. The pollutors and society as a whole could incur as a result of
increased costs of manufacture and community rubbish and effluent treatment.
(C)
In the coastal region M.
status may require controls to be placed
on coastal works that interfere with the functioning of the M.P.A. Restrictions
could relate to reclamation, dredging, opening and closing of inlets
and
coastal protection works in or adjacent to the M.P.A.
Such restrictions could impose significant costs on land developers
and public agencies involved in coastal protection works, and harbour and
marina development. The costs of such restrictions are again likely to be
incurred both by private individuals and society as a whole.
(0)
Access and Recreation Restrictions
In both highly fragile M.P.A.'s and areas where a high level of
protection is desirable for research or scientific reasons, the restriction on
some or all recreational opportunities and access may be desirable. The
resulting loss in current or potential recreational opportunities would represent
a cost to any individual directly affected, and possibily to society.
Costs
Implimentation and Administration
There are a number of short and long term costs associated with the
implimentation, administration and mangement of a Marine Protected Area
(M.P.A.) Programme.
If the M.P.A. programme is to meet its goals and
objectives, detailed research will be necessary to insure the most appropriate
marine areas are selected for protection.
Investigation of management
regimes to determine desired levels of protection (extent of restrictions) and
other management statergies will also be required.
Staff may need to be
employed to impliment the M.P.A.programme, oversee day to day
administration, monitor any affects, enforce possible restrictions, and perhaps
to fulfil an educational role by interpreting this environment to the public.
These costs would probably be borne by society unless a strategy of
'user pays' is introduced into the management of protected areas.
4.5
From the preceding discussion it is obvious that any form of Marine
Protected Area programme will have both significant costs and benefits. In an
ideal rational world, the decision-makers would, using 'cost/benefit analysis',
(or some other valuation tool) to measure both quantitatively and qualitatively
all costs and benefits of alternative strategies of marine conservation, so that
they could select a strategy that maximises benefits and at the same minimise
the costs.
Unfortunately, this is not an ideal world and despite decision-makers
knowing at least qualitatively some of the benefits and costs of a M.P.A.
programme, many are extremely difficult
if not impossible to value
quantitatively. This is because:
(1) Many benefits are only potential benefits, often relying on possible
future developments or environmental changes to become real
benefits.
Examples would be some benefits of maintenance of
genetic diversity for systems stability and new product development.
(2) The present value of future benefits will vary greatly depending
upon the time frame involved and which 'discount rate' (Randall 1982)
is applied. (The rate of discount chosen in turn depending upon the
preference that the person who sets the rate places on the desirability
of present versus future benefits, and this may also over time.)
(3) The value individuals place on the benefits of marine conservation
is difficult to assess because peoples value systems vary greatly.
84
(4) Even some real present benefits of a M.
program are unlikely
to be accurately valued in terms of a common medium such as money,
because their valuation is too subjective. For example, how can the
spiritual value accorded to the 'realm of Tangaroa' (the sea) or the
aesthetic value of the coastal landscape be accurately measured
against the dollar value of fish landings. According to Hollick (1980)
the very exercise of trying to quantitatively evaluate some costs and
benefits by a cost/benefit analysis approach may be by its very
nature irrational.
(5) In addition many of the costs and benefits of a M.P.A. programme
are site specific to particular areas and relate to unique local
conditions. Consequently investigation on a site by site basis using
specific guidelines may be the only way that some form of valuation
can be achieved.
Given however the ongoing long term nature of many major benfits of
marine conservation, such as the maintenance of sustainable harvesting of
marine resources, the fulfilling of non-material needs of society, and given the
irreplaceability of much of this resource and the likelyhood that its value will
increase as natural systems become scarcer, the implimentation of a M.P.A.
programme that achieves such benefits would seem in the balance to be
worthwhile.
The next chapter develops goals and objectives for a M.P.A.
programme and suggests an
benefits of such a programme.
implimentation approach to maximise the
5
PPR
CH
T
RINE
PR
E
ED
RE
M
SUMM RY
Chapter One introduces New Zealand's coastal/marine environment as
both a natural habitat and a natural resource complex.
Chapter Two outlines the unique features and characteristics of New
Zealands environment and describes its habitats and species.
Chapter Three examines the conflicts that have arisen because this
environment functions as both a natural resource complex and a natural
habitat.
Chapter Four presentes a rationale for and the likely benefits and costs
of a Marine Protected Area (M.P.A.) programme.
This chapter introduces a goal oriented approach to planning in natural
resorce management. Appropriate policies. goals objectives and criteria are
proposed. They are based on the potential benefits of a M.P.A. programme
identified in Chapter Four, the need for such a programme identified in
Chapter Three, and the nature of the marine environment identified in
Chapter Two.
The study also presents an outline of a M.P.A. programme designed
with specific reference to selected goals and objectives. This new approach
links criteria for selection of M.
directly to the policy of marine
conservation and the goals and objectives of a M.
program.
This study then examines how successful the Ministry of Agriculture
and Fisheries (M.A.F.) (1985) proposed M.
programme is likely to be in
achieving marine conservation goals and objectives,
This chapter concludes that:
(1) a goal oriented approach to marine conservation is appropriate if the
benefits of such a programme are maximised at minimal costs
(2)
there are four goals of marine conservation involving a M.P.A.
programme.
They are:
the sustainable utilisation of renewable marine resources; and
(1)
the provision for a diversity of human use and activity in the
coastal marine region.
(3)
the preservation of inter and intra species genetic diversity (to
aid in the achievement of goal (1) and (2) and as a legitimate
endeavour in its own right); and,
the provision of research opportunities (to aid in the achievement
(4)
of goals (1), (2) and (3) and as a legitimate endeavour in its own
right).
(3)
From these four goals eight distinct objectives can be developed.
These objectives include:
(i)
the protection of ecologically representative marine habitats,
communities and natural processes;
(ii)
the protection of localised unique and rare marine species,
communities and natural processes;
(iii)
the protection of areas critical to rare or important migratory
species;
(iv)
the maintenance of harvestable marine resources by protection of
critical areas for harvest production;
(v)
the protection of large natural and scenic coastal/marine area
because of their importance to or potential for recreation, tourism
and education;
(vi)
the protection of solitary natural features of outstanding value for
science and education; and,
(vii) the protection of traditional spiritual and or cultural relationships to
the marine environment.
(4)
These objectives range along a conservation spectrum from total
preservation to sustainable development of natural resources,
(5)
The M.A.F, programme is limited in that only three categories of M.P.A.
are suggested, given the eight distinct objectives that this study has identified.
(6)
Categories of M.P.As. within M.A. 's proposed programme, appear to
be based solely on the level of protection selected.
Hence, there is no
guidance given in linking an overiding policy with the goals and objectives of
each category. This creates difficulties in applying criteria for site selection in
each category.
(7)
There is no guidance regarding the appropriate weighting of differient
classes of criteria for selection of M.P.As. in terms of the different objectives.
(8)
Some potentially important criteria for selection of sites are ignored by
M.A.
's approach.
(9)
A goal oriented approach to a M.P.A. programme is likely to be of more
benefit to marine conservation than the approach proposed by M.A.F 1985.
u
n
The desireability of 'marine conservation' by protection of components
of the marine environment has been consistantly developed as the theme in
preceeding chapters.
management
This theme can be restated as a natural resource
policy of ~::...::...::.::~....,.,;:m:;...~~..:::..;;;:.~.::..:..:::- A 'Policy' represents a
philosophical direction which irelates to a desired end to the 'planning
process'. In this case the adopted policy would mean the 'Wise' or 'Rational'
use of the marine environment in accordance with its function as both a
natural habitat and a natural resource complex.
In order to successfully achieve any policy, including one of marine
conservation, Young (1965) advocates the need for planning direction
provided by clearly formulated 'ends' statements.
Davidoff et al. (1962)
developed an 'ends'lmeans ' a pproach to ' planning' by defining planning as
"a process for determining appropriate future action through a
seqence of choices.
The use of the word 'appropriate' implies criteria for making judgement
concerning prefered states and therefore, as suggested by Young (1965),
planning should incorporate a notion of desired 'ends' to the process. The
use of the word 'action' is a reference to spercifics, so the need arises to
relate general 'ends' and particular 'means'.
An appropriate approach to planning for marine conservation
consequently require development of both 'ends' and 'means' statements to
provide; both an overview of what 'ends' are trying to be achieved and clear
guidance of 'means' to those 'ends'.
The development of a planning
hiearchy of 'ends' / 'means' statements for marine conservation with a 'policy'
of marine
on at the apex and then in sequential tiers 'goals',
'objectives' and 'criteria' would then provide an appropriate approach. Such
a theoretical planning hiearchy is shown in figure 5.1.
~CT~
"ENDS
STATEMENTS"
i
POLICY
(def ini tiona broad statement of
purpose or philosophy)
(definitioncommitment to some speci
ied ends in the pursui t I
policy)
One
(i)
JJ
Two
(ii)
"MEANS
STATEMENTS"
FIGURE
Three
(iii)
(iv)
Four
(v)
(vi)
(vii)
1
The
m rin
0
con
rvati n,
ment
guidi
philosophy),has already been presented. What remains is to present
objectives and criteria in relation to marine conservation.
on
ne
1
The second tier of 'ends' statements (as shown in figure 1) are the
oal
of marine conservation.
(Goals are defined as abstract 'ends'
statements that provide a clearer direction than the policy statement towards
the desired 'ends' state.
Chapter four introduced a range of potential benefits to society that
would arise from a programme of M.P.A's undertaken under a policy of
marine conservation.
The realisation of these benefits, coupled with a
reduction in some of the marine resource use conflicts identified in Chapter
three, is considered by this study to be a ligitimate endeavour of natural
resource management within a policy of marine conservation.
Hence, the
goals adopted by this study for marine conservation arising from these
benefits are:
(1) Sustai
utilisation of renewable
ne resources
including both marine flora and
(2) Provision for a diversity of human use
the
coastal/marine
area
by
catering
for
activity in
recreational,
cultural, spiritual, educational and other non .. material needs
society.
(3)
in the
of inter
ne enVironment, to
intraspecies genetic diversity
in the achievement of
goals one and two, and as a legitimate goal of human
stewardship
own right.
(4)
on
h
nUi
in
ron
in
These goals are compatable with and, (for the purposes of this study), relace
the I.U.C.N. goals of marine conservation presented in Chapter one
a
5.2
ram
The third tier of 'ends'/'means' statements (as shown in figure 5.1) are
objectives. (Objectives are more clearly defined 'ends' statements that are
fully specified, and obtainable and are adopted as a means to achieving
predetermined goals .. ) The objectives presented here are to some extent
developed from the four adopted goals of a M.P.A. programme (and each
objective can relate to more than one goal) . They are also loosely based on
objectives for all protected areas, developed by the Commission on National
Parks and Protected Areas (Bali 1982), but have been redefined in relation to
marine conservation.
Objective (I)
To protect ecologically representative examples of marine
habitats and communities and to maintain
representative natural marine processes in a natural
state.
The fulfilment of this objective would be important in achieving goal (3),
the maintenance of genetic diversity (potentia"y vital for marine systems
stability and productivity; and as a legitimate goal in its own right). It would
also be important for goal (4), the development of a representative range of
natural 'base line' areas relatively free from human interference, for scientific
study, educational purposes and environmental monitoring.
This objective is recognised in M.A.F. 'Proposed National Policy for
Marine Resources (1985)' and also by Ray (1976), the I. U.C.N. and the
W.W.
(1984) This
(in
all natural
first included as Major Recommendation Number One
the Second World
Conference on National Parks in (1972). For terrestial habitats, communities
and processes this objective is recognised under New Zealand law in the
Reserves Act 1977.
Objective (II)
protect unique and rare marine species and
communites, and maintain unique and or rare marine
natural processes in a natural state.
The fulfilment of this objective would be important for goal (4),
maintaining genetic diversity mainly for its own intrinsic value. It would also
be important to the other goals of a M.P.A. program, except goal (1), due to
the special interest for science, mangement, recreation and education that
rare and unique species and communites often process.
The protection of rare and unique species and communities has been
a founding objective of many conservation organisations both in New
Zealand and overseas, according to Dingwell (1982) and Talbot (1982). This
type of objective is recognised in a number of statutes in New Zealand law
including the Reserves Act (1977), Wildlife Act (1953), and the Marine
Mammal Protection Act (1979).
Objective (III)
To protect areas critical to biologically, socially or
scientifically important rare coastal/marine migratory
species.
The fulfilment of this objective is important for the same reasons as
Objective (II) although the approach to protection is likely to be different.
Protection here may involve only seasonal protection of critical areas such as
seasonal feeding or spawning grounds or migratory pathways, (in
comparison to the likely.fulltime protection of an area to achieve Objective II ).
This objective has again
and
is often represented, as in North America, in the form of a sanctuary
programme.
Objective (IV)
maintain production of harvestable marine resources
by protection of critical areas of primary production,
feeding, breeding, spawning of economically and socially
important species
This objective in association with appropriate controls on harvesting
limits, is vital in
achieving goal (1) the maintenance of harvestable living
resources.
As such this objective is recognised in the New Zealand Conservation
Strategy (1981) as high priority. Similarly overseas the IUCN has given this
objective high priority, as has Odum (1984) and J)ay (1976). It is also been
incorporated to some extent into the MAF (1985) proposed policy for Marine
Reserves.
Objective (V)
To protect natural and scenic coastal/marine areas of
importance for recreation, education, science and
tourism.
The fulfilment of this objective would be important to goal (2), providing
for a diversity of human uses, non-material needs and activities in the
coastal/marine area, (by focusing attention on an area where the activities
can be enjoyed).
As such it has been adopted as an important objective by M.A. F. in
their 1985 Marine Reserves Policy proposal. Comparable objectives are to
be found in the Reserves Act 1977 and National Parks Act 1980, as well as in
the proposed New Zealand Conservation Strategy 1981.
Objective VI
science, tourism and education.
This objective on a smaller scale would contribute to the attainment of
the same goal as objective (V) by protecting discrete unique features of the
environment.
The Reserves Act 1977 also allows for comparable protection of
terrestial features.
Objective (VII)
To protect traditional cultural relationships of the maori
people to the marine environment.
This objective is important in meeting part of goal (2), in considering
the cultural and spiritual needs of indigenous people, as exemplified by the
call for protection of traditional Maori fishing grounds under the Treaty of
Waitangi.
This objective is recognised by the IUCN Commission on National
Parks and Protected Area, for indigenous people, where traditional methods
of resource use are practised.
There appears to be some recognition of
so-called Maori fishing rights in 8.88(2) of the Fisheries Act 1983 in so far as
these
are specifically defined. But there has been few attempts at such
definition of such rights until recently. On land the spiritual link of the people
with the land has also to some extent been recognised by the Crown through
the joint management and long term leasing of part of the Urewara National
Park from the Tuhoe people (Lucas 1984).
Relevant To M.P.A. Programme
The forth tier of the 'ends'/'means'
planning hiearchy is the
development of 'criteria', that by their judicious application will determine a
spercific areas likely contribution, as a 'marine protected area', towards the
objectives
achievement of the policy,
Criteria discussed here are drawn from the following sources:
and Bell (1984), Cumming (198)4, Raber and Savage (1979), Margules
Usher (1981), Adamus and G/ough (1978), Kirkpatrick (1983), Dearden
(1978), Van Der Ploeg (1974), Ray (1976), Ray (1984) and MAF (1985).
The relevance of specific criteria in terms of the objectives defined
previously is highly variable.
This matter will be dealt with more fully in
section 5.4 'a proposal for a M.P.A. Programme'. (For a fuller discussion of
criteria, refer specifically to Margules and Usher (1981) and Clarke and Bell
(1984)).
GHOUl' 1
BIOLOGICALLY
BASED
CRITERIA
(A) Ecological
(B)
Evaluation
Protection PotentiClJ
Evaluation
GROUP 11
HUMAN USE BASED CRITERIA
(C)
Recreation
Evaluation
(E) Economic/Social
Impact Evaluation
(0)
Research Potential
Evaluation
(F) Cultural
Evaluation
Figure 5.2 Marine Protected Areas:
97
Biologically
criteria are the evaluative criteria drawn from the
sciences such as ecology.
They can to some extent
divided into two
sub-categories (A) Ecological Evaluation and (B) Protection
ntial
Evaluation; although both these sub-categories rely to some extent on similar
types of inputs and information may often overlap.
(Deardin (1978) has
adopted Ecological Evaluation and Threshold Evaluation as a similar division
of biologically based evaluative criteria).
(A)
Ecological Evaluation
This an assessment of an ecosystems or areas qualities
independent of human factors, based on the premise that some areas
individual ecological attributes are more important or interesting than other
areas, regardless of social interest or importance.
Ecological based evaluation of an area can be based on a number of
criteria which could include the following:
(1) representativeness of species and or habitat present;
(2) diversity of species and or habitat present;
(3) rarity or scarcity of species present;
(4) uniqueness of habitat or biological community present; and,
(5) criticalness of habitat and or species present to other processes;
(6) the naturalness of the area; and,
(7) the abundance of life in the area.
(B)
Protection Potential Evaluation,
This is an assessment proceedure, relates more to clarifying the
relationship between nature and human society than reliance on ecological
information.
This approach assesses ecosystem capacity in terms of
resilience to different regimes of human intervention and use; and by this
means the appropriateness of applying a range of protection status regimes,
(such as differient categories of M.P.As), to different sites can be estimated ..
Again this evaluation of an area is based on a number of criteria and these
could involve the following:
(1)
natural unit Integrity in regards to
relationship to
adjacent areas;
(2)
of threat to species, habitat or ecosystems in the area
being considered, (as a result of species or system fragility and or
proximity to or existance of threat such as pollution, overfishing,
physical modification);
(3)
stability or persistence of species or habitat
despite
existing threat;
(4)
reproduciability (opportunity to replicate an area elsewhere
including possible rejuvenation of existing modified sites back to a
relatively natural condition); and,
(5)
type Redundancy (because a number of comparable areas,
ecosystems or habitats have already been protected).
II : Human
II....ID,;:~u:::LII
Criteria
Another criteria grouping, 'human based criteria' must be considered if
conservation goals are to be met. This group of criteria rely on ecological
evaluation only in relation to human interest and as such should be
considered separately from biological criteria.
Group II Criteria are
consequently drawn mainly from the social sciences, and reflect human value
and practical management and administration considerations.
These
evaluative criteria can again be divided into sub-categories. They are: (C)
Recreational Evaluation, (D) Research Potential Evaluation, (E) Economic
and Social Impact Evaluation, (F) Cultural Evaluation.
(C)
Recreational Evaluation
This an assessment of the recreational interest value and recreation
amenity value of an area.
Recreational interest value involves comparing
sites according to:
(1)
availabilaity of, or potential for, a diversity of recreational
opportunities;
(2) a history
recreation use;
(3) type redundancy; and,
(4)
interest to recreational users due to some combination of the
following (diversity of species or habitat, rarity of species, abundance of
life, uniqueness of habitat or area and asthetic appeal of area).
Recreational amenity value assessment involves examining the following:
(5) proximity to recreational users;
(6) potential for or presence of recreational related facilities and
including their associated impacts;
(7) accessability; and,
(8) existence of climatic, oceanic and other physiographic and
topological feature of an area that would affect the recreational
amenity.
(0)
Research Potential Evaluation
This assesses the comparative research amenity value of areas from a
scientific, educational or systems management related perspective.
Assessment of research potential is usually project oriented but again some
combination of ecological criteria (rarity, diversity, abundance, criticalness,
naturalness, uniqueness and representativeness) are likely to be important.
Assessment of research amenity value involves the following:
(1) previous history of research;
(2) existing knowledge and records about an area;
(3) proximity to research agenices and individual;
(4) accessability; and,
(5) existence of climatic, oceanic and other physiographic and
topographical
features
of
an
area
that
affect
the
research amenity.
(E)
Economic And Social Impact Evaluation
These proceedures include cost/benefit analysis and social impact
assessment.
100
Cost/benefit analysis of the protection
natu
areas
complex due to the wide range of costs and benefits associated with
protected status and the difficulty of evaluating these.
empirical
For these reasons
benefit analysis traditionally has tended to undervalue the
benefits provided by maintaining the environment in a natural state relative to
benefits from consumptive use of the resource.
For example many of the
benefits of protection are nonexclusive (Le anyone can enjoy access to the
coast) and by establishing protected status over such natural environments,
the prospect of generating readily identifiable income that reflects the true
value of the resource is not good (Randal 1978).
Another limitation of economic impact assessment is the long time
frame over which many benefits are realised, such as maintenance of genetic
diversity or increase in research knowledge, as this makes it very difficult to
attribute a positive value to these benefits.
application of present discount rates by the
Even if this was possible the
market economic approach
would result in such values being discounted almost to zero. The application
of cost benefit analysis, as an evaluative proceedure, therefore has major
limitations in assessing future benefits of a M.P.A. programme.
However short term economic costs of a M.P.A. programme in relation
to commercial fishing, land reclamation and pollution control can probably be
assessed accurately using this type of approach. This method can possibly
also be employed to assess the likely economic returns from increased
tourism and recreational uses and the possible increased medium and long
term stability in fish supplies due to increased recruitment success and
protection of critical sites to production.
Social impact assessment is also of limited use in assessing the costs
of a M.P.A. programme because of its narrow focus. In application it is usually
restricted to focusing on aspects of particular M.P.As that are likely to have
short term social affects. For example:
(1) possible reduction in available fishing areas and the affect that this
would have on individuals associated with the fishing industry;
101
(2) increasing
of land
reduction in the availability of areas
for reclamation;
(3) effect on employment rates etcetera due to the extra cost incurred in
manufacturing and waste disposal due to tighter pollution controls;
and,
(4) the increase in recreational use of some coastal areas with
subsequent increases in housing costs and possible dislocation of
poorer socio/economic groups from that area, etcetera.
(F)
Cultural evaluation
This assesses the cultural compatability of types of control with
traditional use. Where it is decided to protect area for the maintenance of
tradition rights of access and use, criteria such as history of use, existing use
and compatability of use with the wider goals of conservation are important.
Concl
on
As the previous pages have shown, there is a wide diversity of criteria
that can be applied to selection of sites in a protected areas program.
Considered as a whole, the relative importance of each criteria is virtually
impossible to assess adequately.
Protected natural areas selection
procedures in the past therefore have not surprisingly appeared to reflect and
respond more to the aspirations of pressure groups and political
considerations, rather than be based on sound ecological, social, cultural,
recreational and economic assessment.
5.4
Proposal for A M.P.A. Programme
The differient objectives presented in section 5.2 reflect a range of
goals and because of this there is not one but at least two recognizeable
value positions embodied in the range of objectives. The first of these value
positions is what could be called the preservationist subset of conservation
102
(refer back to the definition of preservation in chapter one). The second value
position is the 'human use' subset of conservation. These two positions are
not necessarily distinct and instead can be thought of as forming a
conservation spectrum from biological preservation at one end of the
spectrum, through to human use at the other. (See figure 5.3).
OBJECTIVES
(I), (ii), (iii),
(iv),
(v), (vi),
(vii),
BIOLOGICAL <_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _> HUMAN
PRESERVATION
(CONSERVATION SPECTRUM)
USE
Figure 5.3 THE CONSERVATION SPECTRUM
Each objective can be considered at least quanlitatively in terms of this
spectrum because each has a differient balance between these two value
positions ,(refer figure 5.3).
For instance objective (i) 'the protection of
ecologica"y representative habitats',
is much more concerned with
preservation in comparison to human use, than is objective (iv) 'the
maintenance of production of harvestable marine resources'. Because each
objective embodies a marginally differient conservation focus they can be
considered as distinct for the purposes of management. This reflects the
fulfillment of each objective requiring subtle differiences in pursuing the policy
and goals of marine conservation.
It would seem appropriate therefore that separate catergories of
103
protected areas are developed in accordance with the distinct objectives .
This is a similar approach to the one adopted under the Reserves Act 1980 in
which there is a range of catergories of protected area based on distinct
objectives.
This approach is however fundamentally different
to the
. Auckland Marine Reserves proposal (1985) suggested by M.A.F ..
Because this study recognises seven distinct objectives, they would
translate into seven catergories of marine protected area.
If the number of
distinct objectives of marine conservation were increased then it would be
appropriate for a corresponding increase in the number of M.P.A. categories,
and visa versa. The title selected for each catergory is to some extent based
on the International Union For The Conservation Of Nature's (IUCN) 1983
'Protected Areas' nomenclature although they have been modified for
application to marine areas.
The seven catergories and their associated
objectives are:
(I) SCIENTIFIC MARINE RESERVE
Objective - To protect ecologically representative examples of marine
habitats and communities and to maintain
representative natural marine processes in
a natural
state.
(II) MARINE PROTECTION RESERVE
Objective - To protect unique and rare marine species and
communites, and maintain unique and or rare marine
natural processes in
a natural state.
(III) MARINE LIFE SANCTUARY
Objective - To protect areas critical to biologically socially or
scientifically Important rare coastal/marine migratory
species.
104
(IV) MARINE CONSERVATION RESERVE
Objective - To maintain production of harvestable marine resources
by protection of critical areas of primary production,
feeding, breeding, spawning of economically and socially
important species
(V) MARITIME PARK
Objective - To protect natural and scenic coastal/marine areas of
importance
for
recreation,
education,
science
and
tourism.
(VI) NATURAL LANDMARK RESERVE
Objective - To protect Natural marine Features of outstanding value for
Science, Tourism and Education.
(VII) INDIGINOUS RESERVE
Objective - To protect traditional cultural relationships of the Maori
people to the marine environment.
5.4.1
M.P.A. Site Selection
Because each category of the M.P.A. programme is linked to a distinct
objective, the process of selecting and ranking marine areas within each
separate categories can be clearly focused towards the relevant objective.
Evaluative criteria for ranking possible marine. sites can therefore inturn be
restricted, in the intial stages, to only those criteria relevant to the primary
objective.
This would have the effect of rationalizing the application of
criteria. Instead of considering all the possible criteria presented in section
5.3, which would be expensive, time consuming and confusing, only a few
criteria need be considered for each category of M.P.A. under this approach.
This approach can be considered as a hierarchical approach to the
I
I
POLICY
J
PROTECTION
DECISION
Primary Criteria /-1- -....
CONSERVATION
Conservable ?
OBJECTIVE
~
0°
'l>....
,~
',;
Valuable?
i-,-.- yes
Outstanding value?
(ranked against
L/p'ima,y
~O~
C,ite",
I
1
each other)
Secondary Criteria
0""
'0'....
..v
no
data collection
J,
J,
no
J,
Tertiary Criteria
data collection
Figure 5.1.,
Conceptual Framework
for applying selection criteria
105
application of selection criteria in the ranking of sites. There is a need to rank
possible marine sites, in regards to each objective, because
political
pressure against marine conservation is likely to mean that not all potential
sites can be included in a M.P.A. programme.
How this approach may work is outlined with reference to figure 5.4. :
For example:
(1)
A particular objective of a M.P.A programme is adopted based
on already developed 'Policy' and its Goals. As an example, the objective
adopted for the 'Scientific Marine Reserves' category of M.P.A. is -
To protect ecologically representative examples of marine habitats and
communities and to maintain representative natural marine processes in a
natural state.
This objective may need further definition by reference to other
Government Policy or identified management needs. For example there may
be a percieved need or desire to protect as representative 1%, 5%, 10% or
even 20% of the coastal seas.
The objective may also need definition by reference to its overiding
goals. In the case of a Scientific Marine Reserve, its overiding goals are;
Goal 3 - the preservation of inter and intra-species genetic diversity, Goal 4 the provision for research opportunities.
(2)
Once an objective has been fully defined in this way the
appropriate primary selection criteria ,(refer section 5.3), to achieve it can
then be specified. With this category of M.P.A. the appropriate selection
criteria would be the Biologally based criteria; group I (A)
(1)
'representativeness of habitat' (on either a national, regional or perhaps even
a district scale); group I (B) (5) 'extent of type redundancy', (for a discussion of
106
what are appropiate levels of protected area redundancy, refer Cumming
1984); group I (8) (2) 'degree of threat' and group I (8) (3)
'stability or
persistance',
Under the Scientific Marine Reserve category of M.P.A. one class of
'human use' based criteria should perhap also be considered as one of the
primary criteria. This class is the group II (D) criteria assessing the 'research
amenity' and 'research potential' of possible Scientific Marine Reserves. This
class of criteria is relevant because the reserves objective has been linked to
Goal 4. Since a high rating based on these criteria would provide the most
valuable areas in terms of the primary objective of a category (I) M.P.A. this
comparatively small group of criteria would make up the Primary Criteria in
figure 5.4
In addition one of the primary criteria to consider in the selection of any
protected area should be does the area need protection in the first place.
This may be because of the ability of the proposed site to fulfil the specified
objective of a marine protected areas programme without legislative
protection? In some cases legislative protection may not be needed under
the M.P.A. programme, if the site is under no present or likely future threat
from disturbance, or if the ecosystem at a site has a very high ability to
withstand threats with little affect.
(3)
Where the data collection, arising from the use of these primary
criteria, indicates that one ( or several) of the nominated marine areas would
be of outstanding value in achieving the predetermined objective if protected,
then the area shoud be protected, under the appropriate catergory, in
preference to less well endowed sites. The reason why the opportunty costs
are not considered in this particular circumstance is because the benefits of
protecting the most highly ranked sites are assumed to be greater than any
107
likely costs. (This mayor may not be an unreal assumption, difficult to prove
or disprove because of the valuation problems mentioned in chapter four).
(4) Where a site has no clear advantage, in regards to the primary
criteria evaluation, reference should then be made to secondary criteria data
collection and evaluation so that the most appropriate areas are selected.
Secondary criteria could justifiable include the group II (E) 'economic and
social impact analysis criteria so that, where there is a choice, areas that
disadvantage the fewest fishermen for example should be selected. Group II
'recreation evaluation' criteria would however be unlikely to be appropriate
as a valuation criteria in this case as there is no substantial link between a
recreational objective and the goals and objective of a category (I) M.P.A ..
(5)
The process of examination of the most likely sites should be
repeated until a predetermined target is reached. In the case of the category
(I) M.P.A the target might be to protect an equavalent area or percentage of
total area of representative marine habitat over New zealands continental
shelf in comparison to habitat already protected on land. This would mean
protecting over 10% of the continental shelf.
There may also be some
regional or district represational targets.
The same type of procedure outlined in the conceptual framework
(figure 5.4) for streamlining the application of site selection proceedure can
be repeated for each category of Marine Protected Area (M.P.A.). Because
each category's objective is differient however the criteria applied and the
targets set will be likely to be differient.
In the case for example of category (II),
'Marine Conservation
Reserve', the relevant criteria would relate mainly to the biologically based
criteria such as: Group I (A) - (3), (4), (6) & (7); and Group I (B) (1), (2), (3) &
108
(5); and possible to a limited extent Group I (D) criteria, as the primary aim is
basically a preservationist one to protect rare species and habitats. For this
category of M.P.A. the target would be substantially differient to the previous
category. Instead of setting predetermined area targets the target instead
may be the protection of all marine areas shown to have value in the
conservation of rare species and rare habitats.
The outline above provides two examples of how the goal oriented
approach, based on linking selection criteria with specific objectives can be
implimented so that criteria can be selected from the list presented in section
5.3 that are appropriate to each individual category of M.P.A. and its objective
and goals.
The appoach proposed by the Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries in
1985 for a M.P.A. programme will now be examined in light of this studies
goal oriented M.P.A. approach outlined above.
5.5
M.A.Fs Proposal For A M.P.A. Programme
In May 1985 the Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries, Auckland
Region, released a proposal for a Marine Protected Areas Program (M.P.A.)
in conjuction with a proposed Auckland Regional Marine Reserves Plan
(M.A.F. 1985). The plan containes two major policy statements for marine
conservation :
1)
to protect and maintain the quality of marine habitat and the
biological health of marine ecosystems at the highest level possible,
consistant with the need to manage marine resources for a wide range
of uses.
2) to establish a network of marine reserves and parks around New
Zealands waters to conserve and protect the widest possible range of
109
marine life forms, habitats and ecosystems ranging from the
exceptional or endangered to the typical and representative.
The plan also outlines seven classes of benefit that could arise from
such a programme and presente three broad categories of M.P.A.'s: 'Marine
Parks', 'Marine Reserves' and
'M~rine
Habitat Reserves'. These catergories
relate principally to the level or type of protection being proposed for an area
rather than
any reason or likely benefits from establishing the reserve.
Priority for site selection is based on the assessment, using a limited
number of criteria, that an area is of 'high profile' or is 'representative'. The
criteria for establishment an area as 'high profile' is given as location,
abundance and or diversity of species, importance for recreation or other
compatiable activities, or because it has unusual or unique features. There
are no criteria specified for establishing area an as 'representative' (The likely
presumption appears to be that a range of high profile reserves will fulfil this
function). Other criteria mentioned that may be important for site selection
include; degree of threat, physical and biological attributes of the area; and
the likely impact that reserve status would have on other user groups and the
adjacent land and marine environment.
5.5.1 Deficiencies In The M.A.F. Approach.
Although the two policy statements presented in the M.A.F. Plan are
consistent with the philosophy of the
Reserves Act
1980, the
I.U.C.N.'Proposal For A New Zealand Conservation Stratergy , (1981) and
with the general policies and goals presented in this chapter, they are not
defined in greater depth elsewhere in the plan by a hierarchy of ends and
means statements. They therefore provide little effective guidance for the
subsequent
implimenation and achievement of goals.
They are also
statements of what should be done, not why it should be done.
110
The benefits of a M.P.A. programme listed by M.A.F. are compatable
to those
presented in chapter four. M.A.Fs. plan however fails either to;
identify and link supposed benefits of a M.P.A. programme to the objectives
they are aiming for, or to differientiate adequetly between types of reserves
and their likely benefits. Consequently there is little, if any ,insight as to how
these often conflicting benefits can be targeted for by the use of appropriate
criteria when selecting M.P.A. sites.
M.A.F. s three proposed categories of Marine Protected Area are useful
in that they designate clearly the likely extent of protection to be given at any
given site. However they provide little guidance in relation to what weighting
should be given to selection criteria, as criteria are not spercifically linked to a
hiearchy of goals and objectives.
Hence selection proceedures at each site
are likely to involve the consideration of most if not all criteria right across the
spectrum of marine conservation. The criteria themselves are drawn from a
whole range of areas including the biological sciences and the humanities,
yet they are all lumped in together, and no real attempt is made to
differientiate between criteria.
The plan is also misguided in suggesting that the protection of high
profile reserves will result in a representative system of marine areas as this
will overlook some less high profile areas (for example areas of naturally
lower diversity such as soft shores) that are still of importance in a
representative system of reserves.
In essence the M.A.F proposal fails to provide a logical progression
from the policy of Marine 'Conservation' to its goals, objectives, categories
and evaluative criteria, for a Marine Protected Areas programme so that
chosen New Zealand
marine protected areas reflect the broad range of
purposes or rational behind such protection.
111
5.6
CONCLUSION
This study identifies the major conflicts occurring in the marine
environment around New Zealand some of the potential and actual benefits
of reducing the conflicts by implimenting a Marine Protected Area programme
as part of a policy of 'Marine Conservation'.
This study also outlined an approach to a Marine Protected Area
Programme that provides a conceptual and practical framework for 'planning',
so that this component of Marine Conservation is likely to achieve its desired
conservation 'Ends'.
However the approach is presented as a preliminary step in planning
for a Marine Protected Area programme in New Zealand. What is needed
now is a more detailed examination of what are the appropriate policy, goals,
objectives, categories and criteria of a Marine Protected Areas Programme to
achieve the maximum benefits of such a programme while keeping costs as
low as practicable.
The Ministry of Agricultures and Fisheries proposed approach fails, in
the authors opinion, to address this central issue. It is the authors hope that
other resource management agencies (such as the newly formed
Department Of Conservation) can take the lead in the field of
marine
conservation so that more appropriate M.P.A. programme can be developed
that takes account of the many complex issues addressed in this study.
112
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