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Biology EOC Review Unifying Concepts Structure and Function of Living Organisms 18-22% Ecosystems 18-22% Evolution and Genetics 43-53% Molecular Biology 15-19% Topic: Ecology Ecology • Collection of abiotic (nonlivng) and biotic (living) factors in an area • Together they influence growth, survival, and productivity of an organism Symbiotic Relationships • Relationship between two organisms • Types: – Mutualism (+,+) – Both Benefit Example: insects and flowers – Parasitism (+,-) – 1 Benefits and 1 Harmed Example: Human and a Tapeworm; dog and tick Predation • Predator: hunter; eats prey • Prey: being hunted or eaten • Evolve in response to one another • Example: As the number of prey increases, the number of predators increases • Help maintain stability within an ecosystem Carbon Cycle Carbon cycles through an ecosystem through: - Photosynthesis:CO2 - Decomposition: Plants die, buried as fossil fuels - Humans burn fossil fuels and CO2 enters atmosphere - Climate change: CO2 is a greenhouse gas; traps heat in atmosphere - Cellular Respiration: Humans breathe out CO2 and breathe in O2 Nitrogen Cycle • 78% of air is nitrogen • Plants receive nitrogen from the soil. • Nitrogen fixing bacteria converts nitrogen into a usable form (ammonia) • Nitrogen is part of the amino acid chain which makes proteins which leads to DNA synthesis Food Chain-shows the flow of energy from one organism to another organism Social Behavior • Communication between individuals of the same species • Can be courtship, territorial (ex:fighting fish) or chemical/pheromones (ex: bees, ants, termites) Food Web • System of interlocking and independent food chains that shows all possible feeding relationships between organisms • Plants:producers/autot rophs • Animals:consumers/het erotrophs Trophic Levels • Steps in a food chain/web • Energy passes from one organism to another • About 10% of the energy at one level passes to the next Carrying Capacity/Logistic Growth • “S” shaped • Maximum number of individuals that an ecosystem can support • Limiting factors: – – – – – – – Food availability Competition Disease Predation Natural Disasters Climate Territory Human Population/Exponential Growth • Growth= birth rate-death rate • Unlimited resources (food, shelter, mates, land, etc • “J” shaped Effect of Disease on Ecosystem • • • • • • Ecosystems with lots of AIDS variation (genetic diversity Influenza and diversity of species) is Tuberculosis more resilient to the impacts Dutch Elm Disease of diseases because there is Psfiesteria a greater possibility that some species have evolved resistance or if a species is lost there will be another species to fill the niche of an extinct species. Human Impacts • • • • • Positive Reforestation Cover Cropping Recycling Sustainable practice (Reduce, reuse, and recycle) Organic • • • • • Negative Acid Rain Deforestation Habitat Destruction Invasive Species Ozone depletion from the release of CFCs North Carolina Ecosystems Impact • Acid rain effects in mountains • Beach erosion • Urban development in the Piedmont leading to habitat destruction and water runoff • Waste lagoons on hog farms • Kudzu as an invasive plant Global Warming • Increase in the average temperature of the earth • Caused by the release of too much CO2 into the atmosphere which amplifies the greenhouse effect • Burning of fossil fuels, volcanic eruptions Bioaccumulation • An increase in environmental toxins at higher tropic levels • Ex. DDT and birds of prey • • • • • • • • Innate Behavior “Instincts” Behaviors an animal is born with Includes Suckling (attachment for feeding) Migration (leave north to go south for warmer climate) Hibernation (during winter months) Estivation ( imprinting (young duckling following mother duck at first sight) Ex. weaving of spider webs; Learned Behavior • Behavior an animal acquires during its lifetime • Includes – Habituation (habit forming) – Classical Conditioning (Pavlov’s dog; stimulus association) – Trial and error (learn by trying) Example: Chimpanzee connecting bamboo poles Topic: Biochemistry Biochemistry • All living things are made of organic compounds. • Contain the element Carbon • Carbohydrates, Proteins, Lipids, Nucleic Acids Carbohydrates • Monomer/subunitmonosaccharide • Function- quick energy source and structure • Tests: glucose-Benedicts starch- Iodine fructose •Ex: Cellulose (cell wall), glycogen, starch, sucrose •Ends in –ose: sugar •Ends in –ase: enzyme •Ends in –ol: alcohol • • • • Lipids “The Letter E” Made of 3 fatty acids and 1 glycerol Function- energy storage and insulation Tests: brown paper test Examples: fats, steroids, and phospholipids; potato chips leave greasy residue on napkins Lipid vs. water Nucleic Acids • Monomer/subunitnucleotide (sugar, phosphate group, and nitrogen base) • Function- carry genetic information • Ex. DNA and RNA Proteins • Monomer/subunit- amino acids • Function- building and repairing cells, communication, transport, gene expression, and regulation • Tests- Biurets • Shape determines the function. • Examples: insulin, enzymes, hemoglobin • • • • • • Enzymes “organic catalysts” Specific; “lock and key method” Protein Reusable Affected by temperature and pH Speed up chemical reaction by lowering the activation energy TOPIC: Cells Prokaryotes Cells • Simple, no membrane bound organelles • No Nucleus • Bacteria only • One circular chromosome • Includes: chromosome, ribosomes, and plasma membrane Eukaryotes • Membrane bound organelles • Plants and Animals • True nucleus containing chromosomes • Animal and Plant Cell Prokaryote and Eukaryote Nucleus/Nucleolus • “Control Center” • Contains chromosomes • Genetic Information Nucleolus: Ribosomal Synthesis (make ribosomes) Mitochondria • “Powerhouse” • Produces energy in the form of ATP • Site of Aerobic/cellular respiration • Cristae (folds) increase surface area to increase energy production Chloroplast • Site of photosynthesis: the way plants make their foodautotrophs • Use sunlight, water, and carbon dioxide to produce oxygen and glucose • Plant cells ONLY • Contains the green pigment chlorophyll Vacuole • Storage of excess materials • Plant cells usually contain one large vacuole Ribosomes • Proteins are synthesized • Found in both prokaryotes and eukaryotes Plasma Membrane aka: Cell Membrane • Surrounds the cell • Regulates what enters/leaves the cell (bouncer/security guard) • Helps maintain homeostasis (stable internal balance) • Made of phospholipids with embedded proteins • Gatekeeper Cell Wall • Plant cells ONLY • Surrounds cell and provides support and protection. • Made of cellulose Eukaryotes Plant • Cell wall • Chloroplast • Large central vacuole Animal Cell Organization Cell Tissue Organ Organ System Individual organism Cell Specialization • cells develop to perform different functions; structure determines function • Regulated by genes Cell Differentiation/Specialization -DNA must be activated “turn on” -DNA determines function and structure -Nearly all cells contain the same DNA -Embryonic and Adult Stem Cells (bone marrow) Cell to Cell Communication • Chemical Signals (hormones) can be sent from one cell to another • Receptor proteins on the plasma membrane receive the signal Topic: Cellular Processes Diffusion • Form of passive transport (NO ENERGY NEEDED) across a membrane • Solutes move from high concentration to low concentration Osmosis • • • • Diffusion of water Passive transport NO ENERGY With concentration gradient • High to low concentration • Example: Food color in water; riding bike down hill Active Transport • Particles moving against the concentration gradient which REQUIRES ENERGY (ATP) • Low concentration to high concentration • Example: Riding back up the hill requires energy • Energy needed to maintain homeostasis within organisms • Example: rid cell of toxins; movement to avoid danger; movement to find food, water, mates, etc. ATP Energy Molecule • Energy storing molecule • Can be used for quick energy by the cell • Energy is stored in the phosphate bonds • Break bonds to release energy • Think about “glowstick” break to activate glowing • “same”/”equal” • Movement of water is the same in and out of a cell Solutions Hypo: Swell Think “Hippo” Water moves into cell Hyper: Shrink Water moves out of the cell -Salt water Cell Cycle • Interphase: cell spends the most time (G1 (growth), S (DNA replicates/copy), G2 (check for errors) • Mitosis: makes body cells; asexual; parent and offspring identical • Cytokinesis: cytoplasm divides Phases of Mitosis “PMAT” Prophase: “preparation” Metaphase: “middle” Anaphase: “apart” Telophase: “two” Specific Cell Adaptations Amoeba: -contractile vacuole (excess water) -psuedopods (false feet) Paramecium: -cilia: short, hair like Structures used for Movement/locomotion Euglena: -flagella (long, whiplike); movement -eyespot: light sensitive Photosynthesis-”light making” • The way plants make their own food (autotrophs) • Reactants: Water, Carbon Dioxide, and Sun • Products: Glucose and Oxygen • Sun+H2O+CO2C6H12O6+O2 • Occurs in the chloroplast • Sun: Radiant energy • Producers/Consumers: Chemical energy • Final: Heat energy Aerobic/Cellular Respiration • With Oxygen • Used to release energy (ATP) for cellular use • C6H12O6+O2H2O+CO2 • Occurs in the mitochondria • Inverse of photosynthesis • 36-38 ATP; very efficient • “aerobics class like ZUMBA” Anaerobic Respiration aka Fermentation • No Oxygen • Used to release energy, but not as efficient as aerobic respiration (less ATP) • Products include CO2 and lactic acid or alcohol • Two Types: • Alcoholic Fermentation (yeast/beer) • Lactic Acid Fermentation (muscle fatigue/cramps) LACK OF OXYGEN Autotroph vs. Heterotroph “self feeding” vs “different food source” • Obtain energy from the environment • Photosynthesis or chemosynthesis • “Producers” • Make own food • Obtain energy from other living things • “Consumers” Topic: DNA DNA / RNA • • • • Nucleic Acids Carry genetic information Made of a chain of nucleotides Nucleotides contain a sugar, phosphate, and a nitrogen base DNA / RNA DNA • Double stranded • Twisted Ladder (backbone: sugar and phosphate) • “Double Helix” • Four base pairs: ATGC • Sugar is Deoxyribose • Found in nucleus RNA • Single stranded • Four base pairs: AUCG • Sugar is Ribose Base Pair Rule • In DNA, Adenine always pairs with Thymine, and Guanine always pairs with Cytosine (weak hydrogen bonds) • In RNA, NO THYMINE, NO THYMINE, Adenine always pairs with Uracil and Guanine always pairs with Cytosine (weak hydrogen bonds) Replication • Making of an identical strand of DNA • Occurs during “S” phase (synthesis) of cell cycle • Daughter cells identical to parent cells • “semi” conservative • 1 “old” strand (original) and 1 “new” strand Protein Synthesis: making of proteins Transcription • DNAmRNA • mRNA travels from the nucleus to ribosomes • Occurs in nucleus • Complementary mRNA strand is produced from a segment of DNA • 3 RNA: -mRNA(messenger) -rRNA(ribosomal) -tRNA(transfer) Translation • Connects amino acids in the correct order to make a protein; peptide bonds • Occurs in the cytoplasm within the ribosomes Codon • Sequence of three mRNA nucleotides that code for an amino acid Mutations • Change in DNA code • Deletions, additions, or Sickle substitutions Cell • May cause a change in protein Mutation produced • NOT always harmful • Random/spontaneous • Radiation and/or chemical exposure • Sex cells-----heritable changes Sickle Cell: Resistant to malaria Topic:Genetics Mitosis • Cell division • Produces two identical diploid daughter cells • Occurs in body cells to grow and repair • Asexual reproduction • Cloning, binary fission, budding • 2 identical diploid (2n) daughter cells • No genetic variation Cancer • Error in cell growth with causes uncontrolled cell growth • Has environment and genetic variables • Cell division • Produces four different haploid daughter cells (gametes) • Occurs in sex cells (gametes) • Sexual reproduction • 4 genetically different haploid (n) cells • Genetic variation/diversity • 2 cell divisions Meiosis Crossing Over • Homologous chromosomes exchange parts of their DNA • Creates variation in gametes Nondisjunction • Homologous chromosomes fail to separate during meiosis • Can lead to -Down Syndrome (Trisomy 21) extra chromosome -Turners Syndrome - Klinefelters Syndrome Asexual vs. Sexual Reproduction Asexual • One parent • Identical offspring • Variation only thru mutations • Examples: budding, fragmentation, fission, cloning Sexual • Two parents • Offspring different from parents • More variation • Fertilization (fusion of gametes); zygote (2n) Inheritance • Traits are specific characteristics inherited from parents • Genes are the factors that determine traits • The different forms of a gene are called alleles Dominant/Recessive Alleles • Dominant alleles are expressed, if present, and recessive are hidden • Capital Letters ex: HH or Hh (dominant) • Lowercase Letters ex: hh (recessive) Genotype actual alleles an individual has for a trait Homozygous (same) • Both alleles are the same • Ex. BB or bb Heterozygous (different) • Both alleles are different • Ex. Bb Phenotype • The actual characteristic displayed by the individual (ex. brown eyes, Hemophiliac, tall) • Physical trait Incomplete Dominance “BLENDING” • Heterozygote shows a blending of the dominant and recessive phenotypes • Example: Red + white = Pink flowers Codominance “BOTH” • Heterozygote expresses both dominant and recessive traits • Ex. Checkered Chicken Polygenic Traits “many” • Traits are influenced by more than one gene • Ex. skin color, hair color, and eye color Multiple Alleles • More than two alleles for a trait (an individual still only inherits two) • Ex. Blood Type type A = IAIA or IAi type B = IBIB or IBi type AB= IAIB type O = ii (recessive) Sex Linked Traits • Sex Chromosomes (23rd pair) – Female = XX – Male = XY • Sex linked traits are carried on the X chromosome • More common in males • Ex. Hemophilia, colorblindness • Recessive allele Test Cross • used to determine the phenotype of an unknown dominant individual • uses a homozygous recessive individual as the “test” • similar to a family tree • Shows pattern of inheritance of a specific trait through a family Pedigree Male=square Female=circle Shaded=affected Strike Through=death Karyotype • Picture of someone's chromosomes • Can detect chromosomal disorders and gender Ex. Down Syndrome, Klinefelter’s Syndrome, and Turners Syndrome Down Syndrome Environmental Factors • Lung/mouth cancer: tobacco use • Skin caner: vitamin D, folic acid, and sun exposure • Diabetes: diet/exercise and genetic interaction • PKU: diet • Heart disease: diet/exercise and genetic interaction Genetic Disorders and the Environment • Many diseases have both genetic and environmental factors • Ex. Cancer, diabetes, PKU Human Genome Project • Sequencing of human DNA • 13 year project • Being used to develop gene therapies • Determine whether individuals carry genes for genetic conditions • Ex: SCID and Cystic Fibrosis Gel Electrophoresis • Technique used to separate molecules (DNA or proteins) based on their size • Use restriction enzymes to cut DNA into fragments • Short fragments move fast and longer fragments move slower • “DNA fingerprinting” • Identify individuals, identify and catalogue endangered species Recombinant DNA • Cell with DNA from another source • Example: Bacteria used to produce human insulin • Human gene inserted into bacterial plasmid Transgenic Organism • An organism with a gene from another source • used to improve food supply, research, and healthcare • Example: “glowing” fish----GFP (glowing fluorescent protein) Topic: Evolution and Classification Origin of Life • Abiotic earth NO Oxygen • First “cells” anaerobic prokaryotes, then photosynthetic, then eukaryotiuc, then multicellular Miller and Urey Experiment recreating The abiotic atomospere Endosymbiotic Theory • Eukaryotic cells evolved from prokaryotes • Early prokaryotes engulfed other prokaryotes and developed symbiotic relationships • Evidence includes mitochondria and chloroplast have prokaryotic type DNA Abiogenesis • Living from non-living or spontaneous generation • Disproved by Redi and Pasteur’s experiments Biogenesis • Living from Living Natural Selection “survival of the fittest” • Theory of Evolution • Fit organisms survive, reproduce, and pass on traits • Charles Darwin • Lead to new species Requirements: • Variation • Competition Adaptations • Beneficial trait that increases survival • For Example, – Beaks that make it easier to eat insects – Bright flowers to attract pollinators – Vascular tissue in plants to adapt to life on land Evidence for Evolution • Fossil Record • Biochemical Similarities (DNA) • Shared anatomical structures • Homologous Structure: same tissue, different organism, different function • Vestigial Structure: once had a function, no longer has a function • Example: human appendix, whale’s hipbones Speciation • Evolution of a new species • must be isolation between populations • Example: geographical isolation, reproductive isolation Antibiotic and Pesticide Resistance • Populations will eventually become resistant to pesticides and antibiotics with overuse Coevolution • Two organisms evolve in response to each other Ex. Flowering plants and their pollinators Binomial Nomenclature • • • • Two word naming system Scientific name Uses Genus and Species names Ex. Dogs: Canis familiaris Dichotomous Keys • Multi-step tool used to identify organisms • Paired set of questions with two choices Levels of Organization “most complex (domain) to “most specific” (species) Did King Philip Come Over For Good Spaghetti -Evolutionary relationships - primitive: first - Closer together: closely related Phylogenic tree Protists • Unicellular Eukaryotes • Can be autotrophic or heterotrophic • Reproduce mostly asexually Fungi • Multicellular eukaryotes (yeast are the only unicellular fungi) • Heterotrophs • Reproduce asexually and sexually Plants • Multicelluar eukaryotes • Autotrophs • Reproduce sexually and asexually Animals • Multicellular eukaryotes • Heterotrophs • Reproduce sexually and asexually Non Vascular Plants • Also called Bryophytes • No true roots or vascular tissue causing them to be small in size • Must live in moist environments • Reproduce with Ex. Mosses, liverworts spores Vascular Plants • Xylem-transports water • Phloem-transports sugar Gymnosperms • Non-flowering vascular plants • Reproduce with cones that contain seeds • Ex. Conifers (pine trees) Angiosperms • Flowering vascular plants • Flower is main reproductive organ • Seeds are enclosed within a fruit • Ex. Deciduous plants Insects • Transport through open circulatory system • Exchange gases through spiracles and tracheal tubes • Most reproduce sexually with internal fertilization • Develop through metamorphosis Annelids (segmented worms) • Transport through closed circulatory system • Exchange gases through moist skin • Reproduce asexually and sexually with internal fertilization Amphibians • Transport through a closed circulatory system involving a three chambered heart • Gas exchange in young with gills, adults lungs and moist skin • Reproduce sexually with external fertilization • Develop through metamorphosis Mammals • Transport though closed circulatory system involving a four chambered heart • Gas exchange through lungs • Reproduce sexually with internal fertilization • Young develop in a uterus and exchange nutrients and oxygen through the placenta (placental mammals) Viruses • Not considered living things • Pathogens that can mutate to resist vaccines • Ex. HIV, Influenza, Smallpox Immune Response B-cells T-cells • Fight antigens in body fluids • B-cells make antibodies • Make memory cells after exposure to antigen • Fight pathogens inside living cells • May help Bcells to make antibodies • Make memory cells after exposure to pathogen Immunity Passive Immunity • Antibodies are introduced into the body • Short term • Such as mother transfers antibodies to infant through breast feeding Active Immunity • Antibodies are acquired when an immune response is activated in the body • Long term • Ex. Vaccines are weak/dead antigens that are introduced to the body Parasites • Lives on or within a host • Benefits while causing harm to the host • Ex. Plasmodium causes malaria (genetic influencecarriers of sickle cell are resistant to malaria) Toxins • Chemical that causes harm to the body • Can be man-made or produced by microorganisms • Ex. Mercury and Lead