Download Biology Top 101

Biology EOC Review
Unifying Concepts
Structure and Function of Living Organisms
18-22%
Ecosystems
18-22%
Evolution and Genetics
43-53%
Molecular Biology
15-19%
Topic:
Ecology
Ecology
• Collection of
abiotic (nonlivng)
and biotic (living)
factors in an area
• Together they
influence growth,
survival, and
productivity of an
organism
Symbiotic Relationships
• Relationship between
two organisms
• Types:
– Mutualism (+,+)
– Both Benefit
Example: insects and
flowers
– Parasitism (+,-)
– 1 Benefits and 1
Harmed
Example: Human and a
Tapeworm; dog and tick
Predation
• Predator: hunter; eats
prey
• Prey: being hunted or
eaten
• Evolve in response to
one another
• Example: As the
number of prey
increases, the number
of predators increases
• Help maintain stability
within an ecosystem
Carbon Cycle
Carbon cycles through an
ecosystem through:
- Photosynthesis:CO2
- Decomposition: Plants
die, buried as fossil
fuels
- Humans burn fossil
fuels and CO2 enters
atmosphere
- Climate change: CO2 is a
greenhouse gas; traps
heat in atmosphere
- Cellular Respiration:
Humans breathe out
CO2 and breathe in O2
Nitrogen Cycle
• 78% of air is nitrogen
• Plants receive nitrogen
from the soil.
• Nitrogen fixing
bacteria converts
nitrogen into a usable
form (ammonia)
• Nitrogen is part of the
amino acid chain which
makes proteins which
leads to DNA synthesis
Food Chain-shows the flow of
energy from one organism to
another organism
Social Behavior
• Communication
between individuals of
the same species
• Can be courtship,
territorial (ex:fighting
fish) or
chemical/pheromones
(ex: bees, ants,
termites)
Food Web
• System of interlocking
and independent food
chains that shows all
possible feeding
relationships between
organisms
• Plants:producers/autot
rophs
• Animals:consumers/het
erotrophs
Trophic Levels
• Steps in a food
chain/web
• Energy passes from
one organism to
another
• About 10% of the
energy at one level
passes to the next
Carrying Capacity/Logistic
Growth
• “S” shaped
• Maximum number of
individuals that an
ecosystem can support
• Limiting factors:
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
Food availability
Competition
Disease
Predation
Natural Disasters
Climate
Territory
Human Population/Exponential
Growth
• Growth= birth rate-death rate
• Unlimited resources (food, shelter, mates, land, etc
• “J” shaped
Effect of Disease on Ecosystem
•
•
•
•
•
• Ecosystems with lots of
AIDS
variation
(genetic
diversity
Influenza
and diversity of species) is
Tuberculosis
more resilient to the impacts
Dutch Elm Disease
of diseases because there is
Psfiesteria
a greater possibility that
some species have evolved
resistance or if a species is
lost there will be another
species to fill the niche of an
extinct species.
Human Impacts
•
•
•
•
•
Positive
Reforestation
Cover Cropping
Recycling
Sustainable practice
(Reduce, reuse, and
recycle)
Organic
•
•
•
•
•
Negative
Acid Rain
Deforestation
Habitat Destruction
Invasive Species
Ozone depletion from
the release of CFCs
North Carolina Ecosystems Impact
• Acid rain effects in
mountains
• Beach erosion
• Urban development in
the Piedmont leading
to habitat
destruction and
water runoff
• Waste lagoons on hog
farms
• Kudzu as an invasive
plant
Global Warming
• Increase in the
average temperature
of the earth
• Caused by the release
of too much CO2 into
the atmosphere which
amplifies the
greenhouse effect
• Burning of fossil fuels,
volcanic eruptions
Bioaccumulation
• An increase in
environmental
toxins at higher
tropic levels
• Ex. DDT and birds
of prey
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Innate Behavior
“Instincts”
Behaviors an animal is born with
Includes
Suckling (attachment for feeding)
Migration (leave north to go south
for warmer climate)
Hibernation (during winter months)
Estivation (
imprinting (young duckling following
mother duck at first sight)
Ex. weaving of spider webs;
Learned
Behavior
• Behavior an animal
acquires during its
lifetime
• Includes
– Habituation (habit
forming)
– Classical Conditioning
(Pavlov’s dog; stimulus
association)
– Trial and error (learn
by trying)
Example: Chimpanzee
connecting bamboo
poles
Topic:
Biochemistry
Biochemistry
• All living things are made of organic
compounds.
• Contain the element Carbon
• Carbohydrates, Proteins, Lipids, Nucleic
Acids
Carbohydrates
• Monomer/subunitmonosaccharide
• Function- quick energy
source and structure
• Tests: glucose-Benedicts
starch- Iodine
fructose
•Ex: Cellulose (cell wall), glycogen, starch, sucrose
•Ends in –ose: sugar
•Ends in –ase: enzyme
•Ends in –ol: alcohol
•
•
•
•
Lipids
“The Letter E”
Made of 3 fatty acids and 1 glycerol
Function- energy storage and insulation
Tests: brown paper test
Examples: fats, steroids, and phospholipids;
potato chips leave greasy residue on napkins
Lipid
vs. water
Nucleic Acids
• Monomer/subunitnucleotide (sugar,
phosphate group, and
nitrogen base)
• Function- carry genetic
information
• Ex. DNA and RNA
Proteins
• Monomer/subunit- amino
acids
• Function- building and
repairing cells,
communication, transport,
gene expression, and
regulation
• Tests- Biurets
• Shape determines the
function.
• Examples: insulin, enzymes,
hemoglobin
•
•
•
•
•
•
Enzymes
“organic catalysts”
Specific; “lock and key method”
Protein
Reusable
Affected by temperature and pH
Speed up chemical reaction by lowering the
activation energy
TOPIC:
Cells
Prokaryotes
Cells
• Simple, no membrane
bound organelles
• No Nucleus
• Bacteria only
• One circular
chromosome
• Includes: chromosome,
ribosomes, and plasma
membrane
Eukaryotes
• Membrane bound
organelles
• Plants and Animals
• True nucleus containing
chromosomes
• Animal and Plant Cell
Prokaryote and Eukaryote
Nucleus/Nucleolus
• “Control Center”
• Contains
chromosomes
• Genetic
Information
Nucleolus: Ribosomal
Synthesis (make ribosomes)
Mitochondria
• “Powerhouse”
• Produces energy in
the form of ATP
• Site of
Aerobic/cellular
respiration
• Cristae (folds)
increase surface
area to increase
energy production
Chloroplast
• Site of
photosynthesis: the
way plants make
their foodautotrophs
• Use sunlight, water,
and carbon dioxide to
produce oxygen and
glucose
• Plant cells ONLY
• Contains the green
pigment chlorophyll
Vacuole
• Storage of excess
materials
• Plant cells usually
contain one large
vacuole
Ribosomes
• Proteins are synthesized
• Found in both prokaryotes and
eukaryotes
Plasma Membrane
aka: Cell Membrane
• Surrounds the cell
• Regulates what
enters/leaves the cell
(bouncer/security
guard)
• Helps maintain
homeostasis (stable
internal balance)
• Made of phospholipids
with embedded
proteins
• Gatekeeper
Cell Wall
• Plant cells ONLY
• Surrounds cell and provides support and
protection.
• Made of cellulose
Eukaryotes
Plant
• Cell wall
• Chloroplast
• Large central vacuole
Animal
Cell Organization
Cell
Tissue
Organ
Organ System
Individual organism
Cell Specialization
• cells develop to perform different
functions; structure determines function
• Regulated by genes
Cell
Differentiation/Specialization
-DNA must be activated
“turn on”
-DNA determines
function and structure
-Nearly all cells contain
the same DNA
-Embryonic and Adult
Stem Cells (bone marrow)
Cell to Cell Communication
• Chemical Signals
(hormones) can be
sent from one cell to
another
• Receptor proteins on
the plasma membrane
receive the signal
Topic: Cellular Processes
Diffusion
• Form of passive transport (NO ENERGY
NEEDED) across a membrane
• Solutes move from high concentration
to low concentration
Osmosis
•
•
•
•
Diffusion of water
Passive transport
NO ENERGY
With concentration
gradient
• High to low concentration
• Example: Food color in
water; riding bike down
hill
Active Transport
• Particles moving against the
concentration gradient which
REQUIRES ENERGY (ATP)
• Low concentration to high
concentration
• Example: Riding back up the hill
requires energy
• Energy needed to maintain homeostasis
within organisms
• Example: rid cell of toxins; movement
to avoid danger; movement to find
food, water, mates, etc.
ATP
Energy Molecule
• Energy storing molecule
• Can be used for quick
energy by the cell
• Energy is stored in the
phosphate bonds
• Break bonds to release
energy
• Think about “glowstick”
break to activate glowing
• “same”/”equal”
• Movement of
water is the
same in and out
of a cell
Solutions
Hypo: Swell
Think “Hippo”
Water moves
into cell
Hyper: Shrink
Water moves
out of the cell
-Salt water
Cell Cycle
• Interphase: cell spends
the most time (G1
(growth), S (DNA
replicates/copy), G2
(check for errors)
• Mitosis: makes body
cells; asexual; parent
and offspring identical
• Cytokinesis: cytoplasm
divides
Phases of Mitosis
“PMAT”
Prophase: “preparation”
Metaphase: “middle”
Anaphase: “apart”
Telophase: “two”
Specific Cell Adaptations
Amoeba:
-contractile
vacuole (excess
water)
-psuedopods (false
feet)
Paramecium:
-cilia: short, hair like
Structures used for
Movement/locomotion
Euglena:
-flagella (long,
whiplike);
movement
-eyespot: light
sensitive
Photosynthesis-”light making”
• The way plants make their
own food (autotrophs)
• Reactants: Water, Carbon
Dioxide, and Sun
• Products: Glucose and
Oxygen
• Sun+H2O+CO2C6H12O6+O2
• Occurs in the chloroplast
• Sun: Radiant energy
• Producers/Consumers:
Chemical energy
• Final: Heat energy
Aerobic/Cellular Respiration
• With Oxygen
• Used to release energy
(ATP) for cellular use
• C6H12O6+O2H2O+CO2
• Occurs in the
mitochondria
• Inverse of photosynthesis
• 36-38 ATP; very efficient
• “aerobics class like
ZUMBA”
Anaerobic Respiration
aka Fermentation
• No Oxygen
• Used to release energy, but not as efficient
as aerobic respiration (less ATP)
• Products include CO2 and lactic acid or
alcohol
• Two Types:
• Alcoholic Fermentation (yeast/beer)
• Lactic Acid Fermentation
(muscle fatigue/cramps)
LACK OF OXYGEN
Autotroph vs. Heterotroph
“self feeding” vs “different food source”
• Obtain energy from
the environment
• Photosynthesis or
chemosynthesis
• “Producers”
• Make own food
• Obtain energy from
other living things
• “Consumers”
Topic: DNA
DNA / RNA
•
•
•
•
Nucleic Acids
Carry genetic information
Made of a chain of nucleotides
Nucleotides contain a sugar, phosphate, and
a nitrogen base
DNA / RNA
DNA
• Double stranded
• Twisted Ladder (backbone:
sugar and phosphate)
• “Double Helix”
• Four base pairs: ATGC
• Sugar is Deoxyribose
• Found in nucleus
RNA
• Single stranded
• Four base pairs: AUCG
• Sugar is Ribose
Base Pair Rule
• In DNA,
Adenine always pairs with Thymine, and
Guanine always pairs with Cytosine (weak
hydrogen bonds)
• In RNA, NO THYMINE, NO THYMINE,
Adenine always pairs with Uracil and Guanine
always pairs with Cytosine (weak hydrogen
bonds)
Replication
• Making of an identical
strand of DNA
• Occurs during “S” phase
(synthesis) of cell cycle
• Daughter cells identical
to parent cells
• “semi” conservative
• 1 “old” strand (original)
and 1 “new” strand
Protein Synthesis: making of proteins
Transcription
• DNAmRNA
• mRNA travels
from the nucleus
to ribosomes
• Occurs in nucleus
• Complementary
mRNA strand is
produced from a
segment of DNA
• 3 RNA:
-mRNA(messenger)
-rRNA(ribosomal)
-tRNA(transfer)
Translation
• Connects amino acids in the correct
order to make a protein; peptide bonds
• Occurs in the cytoplasm within the
ribosomes
Codon
• Sequence of three mRNA nucleotides
that code for an amino acid
Mutations
• Change in DNA code
• Deletions, additions, or
Sickle
substitutions
Cell
• May cause a change in protein
Mutation
produced
• NOT always harmful
• Random/spontaneous
• Radiation and/or chemical
exposure
• Sex cells-----heritable changes Sickle Cell:
Resistant to
malaria
Topic:Genetics
Mitosis
• Cell division
• Produces two
identical diploid
daughter cells
• Occurs in body cells
to grow and repair
• Asexual
reproduction
• Cloning, binary
fission, budding
• 2 identical diploid
(2n) daughter cells
• No genetic variation
Cancer
• Error in cell growth with causes
uncontrolled cell growth
• Has environment and genetic variables
• Cell division
• Produces four
different haploid
daughter cells
(gametes)
• Occurs in sex cells
(gametes)
• Sexual reproduction
• 4 genetically different
haploid (n) cells
• Genetic
variation/diversity
• 2 cell divisions
Meiosis
Crossing Over
• Homologous
chromosomes
exchange parts of
their DNA
• Creates variation in
gametes
Nondisjunction
• Homologous
chromosomes fail to
separate during
meiosis
• Can lead to
-Down Syndrome
(Trisomy 21) extra
chromosome
-Turners Syndrome
- Klinefelters Syndrome
Asexual vs. Sexual
Reproduction
Asexual
• One parent
• Identical offspring
• Variation only thru
mutations
• Examples: budding,
fragmentation,
fission, cloning
Sexual
• Two parents
• Offspring different
from parents
• More variation
• Fertilization (fusion
of gametes); zygote
(2n)
Inheritance
• Traits are specific
characteristics
inherited from parents
• Genes are the factors
that determine traits
• The different forms
of a gene are called
alleles
Dominant/Recessive Alleles
• Dominant alleles are expressed, if present,
and recessive are hidden
• Capital Letters ex: HH or Hh (dominant)
• Lowercase Letters ex: hh (recessive)
Genotype
actual alleles an individual has for a trait
Homozygous (same)
• Both alleles are the
same
• Ex. BB or bb
Heterozygous
(different)
• Both alleles are
different
• Ex. Bb
Phenotype
• The actual characteristic displayed by the
individual (ex. brown eyes, Hemophiliac, tall)
• Physical trait
Incomplete Dominance
“BLENDING”
• Heterozygote shows a
blending of the
dominant and
recessive phenotypes
• Example: Red + white =
Pink flowers
Codominance
“BOTH”
• Heterozygote expresses both dominant
and recessive traits
• Ex. Checkered Chicken
Polygenic Traits
“many”
• Traits are
influenced by
more than one
gene
• Ex. skin color,
hair color, and
eye color
Multiple
Alleles
• More than two alleles for a
trait (an individual still only
inherits two)
• Ex. Blood Type
type A = IAIA or IAi
type B = IBIB or IBi
type AB= IAIB
type O = ii (recessive)
Sex Linked Traits
• Sex Chromosomes (23rd
pair)
– Female = XX
– Male = XY
• Sex linked traits are
carried on the X
chromosome
• More common in males
• Ex. Hemophilia,
colorblindness
• Recessive allele
Test Cross
• used to determine the phenotype of an
unknown dominant individual
• uses a homozygous recessive individual
as the “test”
• similar to a family tree
• Shows pattern of
inheritance of a specific
trait through a family
Pedigree
Male=square
Female=circle
Shaded=affected
Strike Through=death
Karyotype
• Picture of someone's
chromosomes
• Can detect
chromosomal disorders
and gender
Ex. Down Syndrome,
Klinefelter’s Syndrome, and
Turners Syndrome
Down Syndrome
Environmental Factors
• Lung/mouth cancer: tobacco use
• Skin caner: vitamin D, folic acid, and sun
exposure
• Diabetes: diet/exercise and genetic
interaction
• PKU: diet
• Heart disease: diet/exercise and
genetic interaction
Genetic Disorders and the
Environment
• Many diseases have
both genetic and
environmental
factors
• Ex. Cancer, diabetes,
PKU
Human Genome Project
• Sequencing of human
DNA
• 13 year project
• Being used to develop
gene therapies
• Determine whether
individuals carry genes
for genetic conditions
• Ex: SCID and Cystic
Fibrosis
Gel Electrophoresis
• Technique used to separate
molecules (DNA or proteins)
based on their size
• Use restriction enzymes to
cut DNA into fragments
• Short fragments move fast
and longer fragments move
slower
• “DNA fingerprinting”
• Identify individuals,
identify and catalogue
endangered species
Recombinant DNA
• Cell with DNA from
another source
• Example: Bacteria
used to produce
human insulin
• Human gene inserted
into bacterial
plasmid
Transgenic Organism
• An organism with a
gene from another
source
• used to improve food
supply, research, and
healthcare
• Example: “glowing”
fish----GFP (glowing
fluorescent protein)
Topic:
Evolution and Classification
Origin of Life
• Abiotic earth
NO Oxygen
• First “cells” anaerobic
prokaryotes, then
photosynthetic, then
eukaryotiuc, then
multicellular
Miller and Urey
Experiment
recreating
The abiotic
atomospere
Endosymbiotic Theory
• Eukaryotic cells evolved from prokaryotes
• Early prokaryotes engulfed other
prokaryotes and developed symbiotic
relationships
• Evidence includes mitochondria and
chloroplast have prokaryotic type DNA
Abiogenesis
• Living from non-living or
spontaneous generation
• Disproved by Redi and
Pasteur’s experiments
Biogenesis
• Living from Living
Natural Selection
“survival of the fittest”
• Theory of Evolution
• Fit organisms
survive, reproduce,
and pass on traits
• Charles Darwin
• Lead to new species
Requirements:
• Variation
• Competition
Adaptations
• Beneficial trait that
increases survival
• For Example,
– Beaks that make it
easier to eat insects
– Bright flowers to
attract pollinators
– Vascular tissue in
plants to adapt to life
on land
Evidence for Evolution
• Fossil Record
• Biochemical Similarities
(DNA)
• Shared anatomical
structures
• Homologous
Structure: same
tissue, different
organism, different
function
• Vestigial Structure:
once had a function,
no longer has a
function
• Example: human
appendix, whale’s
hipbones
Speciation
• Evolution of a new
species
• must be isolation
between populations
• Example:
geographical
isolation,
reproductive
isolation
Antibiotic and Pesticide
Resistance
• Populations will
eventually
become resistant
to pesticides and
antibiotics with
overuse
Coevolution
• Two organisms evolve in response to
each other
Ex. Flowering
plants and their
pollinators
Binomial Nomenclature
•
•
•
•
Two word naming system
Scientific name
Uses Genus and Species names
Ex. Dogs: Canis familiaris
Dichotomous
Keys
• Multi-step tool
used to identify
organisms
• Paired set of
questions with
two choices
Levels of
Organization
“most complex (domain) to
“most specific” (species)
Did
King
Philip
Come
Over
For
Good
Spaghetti
-Evolutionary
relationships
- primitive: first
- Closer
together:
closely related
Phylogenic tree
Protists
• Unicellular Eukaryotes
• Can be autotrophic or heterotrophic
• Reproduce mostly asexually
Fungi
• Multicellular
eukaryotes
(yeast are the
only unicellular
fungi)
• Heterotrophs
• Reproduce
asexually and
sexually
Plants
• Multicelluar eukaryotes
• Autotrophs
• Reproduce sexually and
asexually
Animals
• Multicellular
eukaryotes
• Heterotrophs
• Reproduce
sexually and
asexually
Non Vascular Plants
• Also called
Bryophytes
• No true roots or
vascular tissue
causing them to be
small in size
• Must live in moist
environments
• Reproduce with
Ex. Mosses, liverworts
spores
Vascular Plants
• Xylem-transports water
• Phloem-transports sugar
Gymnosperms
• Non-flowering vascular
plants
• Reproduce with
cones that contain
seeds
• Ex. Conifers (pine
trees)
Angiosperms
• Flowering vascular
plants
• Flower is main
reproductive organ
• Seeds are enclosed
within a fruit
• Ex. Deciduous
plants
Insects
• Transport through open
circulatory system
• Exchange gases through
spiracles and tracheal
tubes
• Most reproduce sexually
with internal
fertilization
• Develop through
metamorphosis
Annelids
(segmented worms)
• Transport through closed circulatory
system
• Exchange gases through moist skin
• Reproduce asexually and sexually with
internal fertilization
Amphibians
• Transport through a closed
circulatory system involving a
three chambered heart
• Gas exchange in young with
gills, adults lungs and moist
skin
• Reproduce sexually with
external fertilization
• Develop through
metamorphosis
Mammals
• Transport though closed circulatory
system involving a four chambered
heart
• Gas exchange through lungs
• Reproduce sexually with internal
fertilization
• Young develop in a uterus and exchange
nutrients and oxygen through the
placenta (placental mammals)
Viruses
• Not considered living things
• Pathogens that can mutate to resist
vaccines
• Ex. HIV, Influenza,
Smallpox
Immune Response
B-cells
T-cells
• Fight antigens
in body fluids
• B-cells make
antibodies
• Make memory
cells after
exposure to
antigen
• Fight pathogens
inside living
cells
• May help Bcells to make
antibodies
• Make memory
cells after
exposure to
pathogen
Immunity
Passive Immunity
• Antibodies are
introduced into the
body
• Short term
• Such as mother
transfers antibodies to
infant through breast
feeding
Active Immunity
• Antibodies are acquired
when an immune
response is activated in
the body
• Long term
• Ex. Vaccines are
weak/dead antigens that
are introduced to the
body
Parasites
• Lives on or within a
host
• Benefits while
causing harm to the
host
• Ex. Plasmodium
causes malaria
(genetic influencecarriers of sickle
cell are resistant to
malaria)
Toxins
• Chemical that causes
harm to the body
• Can be man-made or
produced by
microorganisms
• Ex. Mercury and
Lead