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Transcript
“While we are free to choose our actions, we are not free to choose the consequences of our actions. “ Stephen R. Covey (1932- ) What is “Risk”? Risk has two components: 1. The probability of something bad happening and 2. The negative consequences that result if it does happen 3 Aquaculture Risks Can Be Viewed in Various Ways Risks to financial and economic well being Risks to human health Risks to social well being Risks to the physical environment Risks to the biological environment (Biodiversity) Insurable vs. uninsurable risks 4 Risks of Failure Due to Management Factors Lack of appropriate expertise/experience Lack of adequate government over sight Poor planning (macro and micro level) Inadequate market research Bad operational decisions Inadequate financial backing/resources 5 Risks of Failure Due to Market Factors Currency fluctuations affecting international markets New competitors Unpredicted changes in consumer preferences 6 Risks to Assets Destruction or loss of infrastructure &/or stock due to natural and man-made disasters and “Acts of God” toxic algal blooms epizootic disease outbreaks chronic disease losses vandalism & theft power failure predation unusual weather events war 7 Risks to Human Health Public health risks may be due to: pathogens and contaminants in live fish and their products (e.g. bioaccumulation of heavy metals, organophosphates, etc. from feeding trash fish, parasitic infections such as anisakid nematodes, and larval trematodes, algal toxins , etc.) post-harvest changes (spoilage bacteria, histamines) contamination of drinking water (by antibiotics, chemicals, feeds used in aquaculture) breeding of resistant strains of bacteria (via misuse of antibiotics, e.g. chloramphenicol) 8 Risks to Human Health Occupational risks: risk of physical injuries (cuts, diving accidents, boating accidents, electrical shocks, etc.) chemical poisoning (breathing, skin contact, consumption of caustic chemicals, poisons) bites and stings post-harvest infections (bacterial infections - e.g. from handling tilapias) 9 Risks to the Physical Environment risk of environmental degradation (by nets, garbage, siltation, other forms of pollution, escapees) risk of decreased esthetics or quality of life (“not in my backyard” syndrome - frequent in developed countries where aquaculture and residential areas are in close proximity) 10 Risks to the Biological Environment (Biodiversity) Unintentional introduction of pests and “fellow travelers” (tilapia fry in milkfish shipments, many other examples) Intentional introduction of species that become invasive (Invasive aquatic species, IAS) (golden apple snail) risk of potential genetic impacts on native stocks due to use of new species or strains risk of potential ecological impacts on local ecosystems risk of potential pathogen introductions 11 Risks to the Biological Environment Risk of bio-magnification of parasites and diseases of native species (e.g. of sealice in British Columbia) Risks due to breeding of resistant strains of bacteria that impact aquaculture success (e.g. vibrios in Asian prawn hatcheries) 12 Pathogen Risks Associated with Introductions and Transfers Introduction of exotic pathogens many highly pathogenic and untreatable viruses species that are non-pathogenic in the normal host may be highly pathogenic in new hosts transboundary aquatic animal diseases (TAADs) many examples. Introduction of new strains of existing pathogens (bacteria and viruses) 13 Ecological Risks Associated with Introductions and Transfers Competition (food, breeding, habitat) (e.g. in Asian catfishes) Predation (Nile perch, rainbow trout, other carnivorous species) Habitat destruction/alternation (janitor fish in Philippines and Malaysia, zebra mussel in the Great Lakes) 14 Aquaculture’s 7 Risk Analysis Sectors Food Safety/Human Health Risk Analysis Microbiological risks in food Ecological Risk Analysis (ERA) Genetic Risk Analysis Genetic Risks in aquaculture o From new species & strains o From GMOs, triploids, etc. Sustainable Pathogen Risk Analysis (PRA) Pathogen risks posed by international & domestic movements, including on-farm Aquaculture Ecological impacts of introduced & transferred species (pests & Invasives) Examples: o Transmission of disease organisms o Biological interaction of escapes with wild populations including predation, competition, genetic impacts, etc. o Physical interactions with aquatic life o Physical impacts on aquatic ecosystems Development Environmental Risk Analysis (ERA) Financial Risk Analysis Business risks in aquaculture Costs to society of pathogens, pests, invasives Social Risk Analysis Risks to aquaculture from society Risks to society from aquaculture Risks to the physical & biological environment in which aquaculture takes place Examples: o Organic and chemical pollution o habitat change & loss o impacts on wild populations o secondary impacts on other production systems 15 Pathogen Risk Analysis Also termed Import Risk Analysis (IRA) IRA is a highly structured process that is carried out by countries when assessing proposals to import live aquatic animals or their products. If World Trade Organization (WTO) member countries require sanitary measures beyond those outlined in the OIE’s Aquatic Animal Health Code, such measures must be justified by a risk analysis. 16 Ecological Risk Analysis Often referred to as Pest Analysis Overlaps with and complements actions to prevent the impacts of “Invasive Species” Procedures have not been formalized by international agreement, and thus the process is at the discretion of the importing country Countries need to develop their own standardized risk analysis procedures ICES Code of Practice and other recommended protocols may serve as a basis of this. 17 Invasive Species A species that has been introduced into an environment in which it did not evolve, and whose introduction causes, or is likely to cause, economic or environmental harm, or harm to human health. 18 Invasive Species are found in ALL taxonomic groups 19 Effects of Invasive Species Predation Herbivory Competition Hybridization Disease 20 THE INVASIVES PROBLEM •Invasive organisms are the second greatest threat to biodiversity worldwide •Many have totally altered ecosystem structure and function •Many have caused enormous economic damage •Some are a threat to human health •Invasions are usually not reversible 21 INVASION-PREVENTION FILTERS Pre-entry World’s Biota Port-of-entry Imports Rapid-response Escapes Widespread Increasing Cost Increasing Ease 22 Genetic Risks from Aquaculture Aquaculture operations frequently lose small numbers of cultured fish to the natural environment (“leakage”) Occasionally, catastrophic losses of large numbers of fish occur due to equipment failure, storm damage or flood. 23 Why is Genetic Improvement Important to Aquaculture? Genetic improvement can increase aquaculture production and efficiency Genetically superior aquaculture stocks are produced through: use of high-performance exotic stocks & species (introductions and transfers) development & use of: selectively bred stocks interspecific hybrids triploids transgenic lines (GMOs) 24 In Genetic Risk Analysis: Hazardous agent = the cultured stock Harm = the resulting damage (i.e. a consequence) In the aquaculture context, the hazard may be: a non-indigenous (exotic) species or strain an interspecific hybrid a non-indigenous, selectively bred, triploid or transgenic stock (includes GMOs) 25 Direct Genetic Harms Result from interbreeding of a cultured stock with reproductively compatible populations in the receiving ecosystem Include: Loss of adaptation (impacts the same species) Interbreeding with escaped cultured organisms displaces allele frequencies at fitness-related genes in wild populations from selective optima, resulting in loss of fitness. Introgressive hybridization (impacts another species) Escape or stocking of an exotic species can result in interbreeding with a reproductively compatible species in the receiving environment. If the resulting hybrid is fertile, it poses the risk of introgressive hybridization with the native species, threatening its genetic integrity. 26 Direct Genetic Harms Examples of loss of adaptation: Escapes of Atlantic salmon from net-pen culture comprise 70% of the spawning stock in some Norwegian rivers, A model assessing one-generation effects of interbreeding of escaped cultured fish on of natural populations showed reductions in genetic differentiation up to 80%. Cultured Atlantic salmon differ genetically and behaviorally from wild salmon. Cultured and hybrid salmon had reduced survival, but faster growth than wild fish, and their parr displaced wild parr competitively. 27 Direct Genetic Harms Examples of loss of adaptation: The lifetime reproductive success of farmed salmon was 16% that of native salmon, and the productivity of the wild population was reduced by more than 30% by interbreeding. Hatchery Atlantic salmon exhibited significant changes in allele frequencies and loss of lowfrequency alleles relative to the wild population from which they were derived one generation earlier. The risk of random genetic drift and inbreeding had doubled over the one generation. 28 Direct Genetic Harms Examples of introgressive hybridization: In Thailand, hybrid catfish escaping from farms interbred with native catfish, giving rise to introgressive hybridization with both wild and cultured stocks . In the Philippines, poor management led to unwanted hybridization of previously pure tilapia species to occur by escapes and intrusions. In Bangladesh, 8.3% of silver carp broodstock exhibited bighead carp alleles, while 23.3 % of bighead carp exhibited silver carp alleles. Some fish were advancedgeneration hybrids, compromising broodstock integrity and performance in aquaculture. 29 Indirect Genetic Harms Result when escaped or released cultured stock compete or prey on other populations or species in the receiving ecosystem. Include: By reducing their abundance, the effective population size of affected populations is reduced, causing loss of genetic variability and ability to adapt in the face of changing selective pressure, and also increased likelihood of subsequent inbreeding and extinction. If cultured fish interbreed unsuccessfully with a wild population, the loss of reproductive investment increases demographic risk. This mechanism can be realized by: Interbreeding of a cultured stock and a natural population that results in a sterile hybrid. 30 Indirect Genetic Harms The use of triploid aquaculture stocks raises three issues: The efficacy with which triploids are produced, which does not reach a full 100%. Hence, triploid verification has to be implemented to manage risk. The stability of the triploid state. For example, a small percentage of Pacific and Suminoe oysters have shown signs of reverting to the diploid state. The functional sterility of triploid adults. Triploid males of some species may undergo gonadal maturation, sometimes producing haploid or aneuploid sperm. If they mate with diploid females, the resulting broods will be non-viable, reducing the reproductive success of the receiving population. 31 Status of Genetic Risk Analysis Procedures have not been formalized by international agreement. The process is at the discretion of the importing country; thus countries need to develop their own standardized risk analysis procedure. ICES Code of Practice and other protocols may serve as a basis of this. Where concerns exist, precautionary approaches should be applied. This may involve targeted experimental studies and monitoring of pilot introductions. 32 Aquaculture Offers Many Potential Benefits Economic benefits direct and indirect employment local investment potential export earnings Social benefits production of high-quality, low-cost protein enabling and empowerment of rural populations, including women potential for sustainability and “greenness” 33 Balancing the Risks and Benefits of Aquaculture The value that a country places on the potential benefits to be derived from trade in live aquatic animal species is incorporated into its national Appropriate Level of Protection (ALOP) 34 Key Points Careless movements of live aquatic animals can lead to: Degraded habitats Reduced biodiversity Species becoming rare or extirpated Collapse of aquaculture Major social and economic impacts 35 Key Points Risk analysis is a decision-making tool that contributes to protecting national health and welfare. It can also contribute to sustainable aquaculture and the success of individual aquaculture businesses and operations. 36 37