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APES
FALL FINAL REVIEW 2012
GARRETT HARDIN
 TRAGEDY OF THE COMMONS
 PEOPLE WILL ALWAYS OPT FOR THE
IMMEDIATE BENEFIT
 WE WILL ALWAYS ADD ONE TOO MANY
SHEEP TO THE FIELD, DESTROYING THE
COMMONS
SAND COUNTY ALMANAC
 ALDO LEOPOLD
 LAND ETHICS
FIRST LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS
 CHEMICAL ENERGY --> MECHANICAL
ENERGY --> HEAT
 ENERGY CANNOT BE CREATED OR
DESTROYED, ONLY CONVERTED FROM
ONE FORM TO ANOTHER
CARBON
 MAIN COMPONENT IN ORGANIC COMPOUNDS
 COMBINES WITH OXYGEN TO FORM CO2
 LARGEST SINK IN OCEANS
 CORAL REEFS
HOW HUMANS INTERFERE IN THE
NITROGEN CYCLE
 BURNING FOSSIL FUELS
 DESTROYING FORESTS, GRASSLANDS,
WETLANDS
 AGRICULTURE- ADDS NITROGEN TO
AQUATIC SYSTEMS AND RELEASES NOX
 LIVESTOCK WASTE AND COMMERCIAL
FERTILIZERS
 REMOVE FROM TOPSOIL WHEN WE
HARVEST N-RICH CROPS (clover, soybeans,
peas and beans)
END PRODUCTS OF ANAEROBIC
RESPIRATION
 LACTIC ACID
 METHANE
 ETHYL ALCOHOL
 HYDROGEN SULFIDE
NATURAL SELECTION
 ENHANCED SURVIVAL OF THOSE
INDIVIDUALS WITH FAVORABLE
ACQUIRED PHENOTYPIC TRAITS
 CHARLES DARWIN
 13 DIFFERENT SPECIES OF FINCHES
2 WAYS HUMANS INTERFERE WITH THE
CARBON CYCLE
 BURNING FOSSIL FUELS
 DEFORESTATION
GENE FLOW
 SPREAD OF ALLELES/GENES THROUGH A
POPULATION OVER A PERIOD OF
SUCCESSIVE GENERATIONS
EQUATOR
 RECEIVES THE MOST DIRECT SOLAR
ENERGY
 DOLDRUMS
 LOW PRESSURE
 LOTS OF RAIN
CARBON DIOXIDE AND WATER
 THE END PRODUCT OF AEROBIC
RESPIRATION
 WHAT IS NEEDED FOR PHOTOSYNTHESIS
ENDANGERED ANIMALS
 GRIZZLY BEAR
 PANDA BEAR
 ORANGUTAN
 LEATHERBACK SEA TURTLE
 SNOW LEOPARD
 POLAR BEAR
 MOUNTAIN GORILLA
 BLUE WHALE
CITES
 ORGANIZATION THAT PROHIBITS
INTERNATIONAL TRADE/SALE OF
THREATENED/ENDANGERED SPECIES
NITROGEN FIXATION
 BACTERIA IN SOIL AND BLUE-GREEN
ALGAE COMBINE GASEOUS N2 WITH
HYDROGEN TO MAKE NH3
 BACTERIA USE SOME OF AMMONIA FOR
NUTRITION AND EXCRETE THE REST TO
THE SOIL WHICH IS THEN CONVERTED
INTO NH4+ THAT IS USED BY PLANTS
NITRIFICATION
 AMMONIA NOT TAKEN UP BY PLANTS IS
CONVERTED TO NITRATE IONS BY
BACTERIA
AMMONIFICATION
 SPECIALIZED BACTERIA CONVERT DEAD
MATERIAL AND WASTE INTO NH3 AND
NH4+
DENITRIFICATION
 BACTERIA IN WET ENVIRONMENTS
CONVERT THE NH3 AND NH4 BACK INTO
NO3+ AND NO2+ ION, AND THEN BACK
INTO N2 AND N2O
 THE LAST STEP IN THE NITROGEN CYCLE
AND THEN IT REPEATS!
MITIGATION BANKING
 ALLOWING DESTRUCITON OF WETLANDS
PROVIDING THAT A LARGER WETLAND
AREA WILL BE CREATED
HIPPCO
 HABITAT DESTRUCTION, DEGRADATION,
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FRAGMENTATION
INVASIVE SPECIES
POLLUTION
POPULATION GROWTH
CLIMATE CHANGE
OVEREXPLOITATION
THREATS TO THE WORLD’S BIODIVERSITY
GREENHOUSE GASES
 METHANE
 NITROUS OXIDE
 WATER VAPOR
 CARBON DIOXIDE
 CFC
 OZONE (GROUND LEVEL)
RESOURCE PARTITIONING
 SHARING OF A RESOURCE BY UTILIZING
DIFFERENT PARTS OF IT.
 BIRDS EATING FROM DIFFERENT PARTS
OF THE TREE
EL NIÑO
 WARMING OF SURFACE WATER IN THE PACIFIC

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


OFF THE COAST OF SA
TRADE WINDS WEAKEN
A STRONG EQUATORIAL COUNTERCURRENT
DEVELOPS IN THE PACIFIC
DECREASED UPWELLING EVENTS
DROUGHT IN INDONESIA AND BRAZIL
REDUCTION IN PRIMARY PRODUCTIVITY BY
THE PHYTOPLANKTON AND A DECLINE IN FISH
POPULATION
FLOODING IN PERU
MUTUALISM
 RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN 2 DIFFERENT


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SPECIES IN WHICH BOTH BENEFIT
ANTS AND THE ACACIA TREE
RHINO AND OXPECKER
ALGAE AND CORAL
BACTERIA IN THE INTESTINES OF COW
PRIMARY SUCCESSION
 NO SOIL
 GLACIER RETREAT, BARREN ROCK
 LICHEN, MOSS, SMALL HERBS, SHRUBS,
PINES, HARDWOODS
 OCCURS SLOWLY
ABIOTIC FACTORS
 NUTRIENTS
 WATER
 ROCKS
 DISSOLVED OXYGEN
 TEMPERATURE
 SALINITY
 NITROGEN
 PHOSPHORUS
 CARBON
ADAPTATIONS OF DESERT PLANTS
 TOXINS IN SKIN
 STORE WATER IN EXPANDABLE TISSUE
 REDUCED LEAVES, OR NONE AT ALL
 SPINES
 OPEN PORES ONLY AT NIGHT
RESULTS OF EVERGLADES
DEGRADATION
 90% OF WADING BIRDS HAVE DISAPPEARED
 ALGAL BLOOMS COVER ABOUT 40% OF BAY
 LESS THAN HALF ITS ORIGINAL SIZE
 DEER/TURTLE/VERTEBRATE POPS HAVE
DECREASED 75-95%
 FLORIDA BAY IS SALTIER/WARMER
 CORAL REEFS/TOURISM THREATENED
 CERP (COMPREHENSIVE EVERGLADES
RESTORATION PLAN)
WHAT ARE HURRICANES?
 MOST DESTRUCTIVE
 74
 STORM SURGE
 NORTHEAST QUADRANT
 EQUATORIAL LOCATIONS
 1-5 saffir-simpson
 COUNTERCLOCKWISE WINDS
GRASSLANDS
 PRAIRIES
 WINDY
 RAPID EVAPORATION
 FIRES IN SUMMER AND FALL
 TREE GROWTH HINDERED
BENTHIC ORGANISMS
 OYSTERS
 CLAMS
 STARFISH
 LOBSTER
 SPONGES
 SEA SQUIRTS
EUTROPHIC LAKE
 LAKE WITH LOTS OF NUTRIENTS
 SHALLOW, MURKY WATER
 CAN OCCUR NATURALLY AS WELL AS
ANTHROPOGENICALLY
What is the doubling formula?
 T= 70/r
 If a country has a growth rate of 2%, how
many years will it take to double its
population?
 T= 70/2 = 35 years
PHYSICAL REACTIONS
 TEARING PAPER
 CUTTING GRASS
 MELTING, CONDENSING, FREEZING,
EVAPORATING
EXPONENTIAL GROWTH
 STARTS SLOWLY THEN RAPIDLY INCREASES
 HUMAN POPULATION
 J CURVE
DEFORESTATION IN
TROPICAL FORESTS
 #1 CAUSE OF HABITAT DESTRUCTION
 RELEASES CO2 INTO THE ATMOSPHERE
 CAUSES EROSION, LOSS OF NUTRIENTS
KEYSTONE SPECIES
 KRILL
 BEAVER
 SEA OTTER
 GRAY WOLF
 BATS AND OTHER POLLINATORS
 AMERICAN ALLIGATOR
PHOSPHORUS
 MINING WASTE, SEWAGE , FERTILIZERS
AND DETERGENTS
 LIMITING FACTOR FOR PLANT GROWTH
IN LAKES
 RELEASED FROM VOLCANOES, FOREST
FIRES
 USED TO MAKE ADP AND ATP
 FOUND IN OCEAN SEDIMENTS, FOSSILS OF
BONES AND GUANO, UNDERGROUND RX
AND MINERALS
DENSITY-DEPENDENT FACORS
 DISEASE
 COMPETITION FOR RESOURCES
 PREDATION
 PARASITISM
K- SPECIES
 FEW OFFSPRING
 LARGE OFFSPRING
 PROVIDE EXTENSIVE PARENTAL CARE
 SPECIALISTS
INTERSPECIFIC COMPETITION
 TWO OR MORE DIFFERENT SPECIES
COMPETING FOR THE SAME RESOURCES
REASONS WOMEN HAVE LESS CHILDREN
 JOBS
 EDUCATION
 CONTRACEPTIVES AVAILABLE
 PENSIONS AVAILABLE
 LOWER INFANT MORTALITY RATE
INVASIVE SPECIES
 CANE TOAD
 PURPLE LOOSESTRIFE
 KUDZU
 SEA LAMPREY
 ZEBRA MUSSEL
 EUROPEAN STARLING
 NUTRIA
 NILE PERCH
BIRDS
 INDICATOR SPECIES
 EASY TO TRACK AND COUNT
 LIVE IN EVERY CLIMATE AND BIOME
HOW A POPULAION IS AFFECTED BY AIDS
 LOSS OF PRODUCTIVE, YOUNG WORKERS
 DECREASE LIFE EXPECTANCY
 LOSS OF ADULTS TO SUPPORT THE YOUNG
AND ELDERLY
RAINSHADOW EFFECT
 MOUNTAINS
 MORE RAIN ON THE WINDWARD SIDE
 CREATES DESERTS ON THE LEEWARD
SIDE OF MOUNTAINS
SYNERGY
 WHEN THE IMPACT OF TWO COMBINED
FACTORS IS GREATER THAN EACH
INDIVIDUAL FACTOR
4 PRINCIPLES OF SUSTAINABILITY
 RELIANCE ON SOLAR ENERGY
 BIODIVERSITY
 NUTRIENT CYCLING
 POPULATION CONTROL
TROPICAL RAIN FOREST
 HIGH NET PRODUCTIVITY
 LITTLE NUTRIENTS IN SOIL
 LOW LEVELS OF GROUND LEVEL
SUNLIGHT
 HIGH BIODIVERSITY
 HIGH HUMIDITY
 DEFORESTATION DUE TO CATTLE
GRAZING, PLANTATION CROPS
LIMITING FACTORS
 FACTORS THAT LIMIT THE GROWTH,
ABUNDANCE OR DISTRIBUTION OF A
POPULATION
 ABIOTIC FACTORS
 NUTRIENTS, SUNLIGHT, SPACE, WATER,
RESOURCES
CLIMATE
 TEMPERATURE AND PRECIPITATION
 MOST IMPORTANT FACTOR IN
DETERMING WHICH BIOME IS FOUND
WHERE
GROSS PRIMARY PRODUCTIVITY
 THE TOTAL AMOUNT OF ENERGY THAT AN
ORGANISM TAKES IN
GULF STREAM
 WARM WATER CURRENT IN THE
ATLANTIC OCEAN
 WARMS EUROPE’S CLIMATE
DESTRUCTION/DEGRADATION
OF DESERTS
 OVERGRAZING
 CLIMATE-CHANGED DROUGHT
 SUVS BREAKING SURFACE CRUST
 HUMAN POPULATION GROWTH
 RESULT IS DUST STORMS
BENEFITS OF MICROORGANISMS
 PURIFY WATER
 PRODUCE FOOD
 BREAK DOWN FOOD IN OUR INTESTINES
 CONTROL DISEASES OF PLANTS
 PART OF THE NITROGEN CYCLE
 DECOMPOSERS
REASONS FOR THE EXTINCTION
OF THE GOLDEN TOAD
 CHYTRID FUNGUS
 CLIMATE TOO DRY
 DEFORESTATION
 SMALL RANGE
 HEAVY DEPENDENCE ON MOISTURE
FIRST LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS
 ENERGY CANNOT BE CREATED OR
DESTROYED, ONLY CONVERTED FROM
ONE FORM TO ANOTHER
DESERTS
 LITTLE RAIN
 ADAPTATIONS TO SAVE WATER
 VERY FRAGILE ECOSYSTEM
 PLANT GROWTH
 SLOW LOW SPECIES DIVERSITY
 SLOW NUTRIENT CYCLING (LITTLE
BACTERIA IN THE SOIL)
 SOILS TAKE HUNDREDS OF YEARS TO
RECOVER
CARBON DIOXIDE
 DEFORESTATION
 GREENHOUSE GAS
 RELEASED IN AEROBIC RESPIRATION
TEMPERATE DECIDUOUS FOREST
 MOST DAMAGED BIOME
 WHERE WE LIVE
 SEASONS, VARIATION IN TEMPERATURE
 MANY TREES LOOSE LEAVES IN WINTER
TO SAVE ENRGY
ENERGY PYRAMID
 10% TRANSFER OF ENERGY
 90% LOSS OF ENERGY
 FLOW OF ENERGY
SEA BREEZE
 CREATED BY DIFFERENT SPECIFIC HEATS
OF LAND AND WATER
 WIND COMING FROM THE OCEAN
 AIR MOVING FROM HIGH PRESSURE TO
LOW PRESSURE
SECOND LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS
 WHENEVER ENERGY CONVERSIONS
OCCUR, WE ALWAYS END UP WITH LESS
USABLE ENERGY
 TROPHIC LEVELS- ONLY 10% OF ENERGY
IS TRANSFERRED
SPECIATION
 OCCURS DUE TO GEOGRAPHIC ISOLATION
AND REPRODUCTIVE ISOLATION
 2 SPECIES ARISE FROM ONE
CORAL REEFS
 POLYPS
 REMOVE CO2 FROM ATMOSPHERE
 ZOOXANTHELLAE
 ACT AS NATURAL BARRIERS
 JOBS AND BUILDING MATERIALS
 FISHING AND TOURISM INDUSTRIES
AQUATIC LIFE ZONES
 SALTWATER (MARINE)
 FRESHWATER
NEKTON
 FISH
 TURTLES
 SWIMMING CONSUMERS
THE GREENHOUSE EFFECT
 THE TRAPPING OF HEAT ENERGY BY
MOLECULES IN THE ATMOSPHERE
CHARACTERISTICS OF AN
OLIGOTROPHIC LAKE
 DEEP, CLEAR LAKES WITH STEEP BANKS
THAT HAVE A SMALL SUPPLY OF PLANT
NUTRIENTS
23.3 YEARS
 How many years will it take for a population
to double if its growth rate is 3.0%?
LITTORAL ZONE
 zone of nutrient-rich water near the shore
LOSS OF BIODIVERSITY
IN LAKE VICTORIA
 INCREASE IN NILE PERCH
 ALGAL BLOOMS FROM NUTRIENT RUNOFF
FROM FARMS
 INCREASED POVERTY
 DEPELTED FORESTS=INCREASED RUNOFF