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Transcript
Review: •Species •Population •Community •Ecosystem •Biosphere •Habitat •Niche •Population size (N) •Population Density •Dispersion •Carrying capacity •Limiting factors -density-dependent (disease, predation, competition) -density-independent (natural disaster, extreme climate AGE STRUCTURE SURVIVORSHIP CURVES Type III: individuals die young; organisms that produce free swimming larvae. Type I: survive to middle age and the high mortality; humans. Type II: length of survivorship is random; likelihood of death is equal; rodents, hydra. K K-selected species: population size remains relatively constant at the carrying capacity (K). Humans; small number of large offspring that require parental care until maturity. r-selected species: rapid growth (exponential); produce many offspring that are small, mature quickly, and require little if any parental care and die quickly; opportunistic species such as grasses and insects. Interspecific competition: individuals of different species compete for resources in the same area. Trees of different species: one grows taller than the other species and more successfully competes for sunlight and water; lions and cheetahs compete for the same prey in the same area. Intraspecific competition: individuals of the same species compete for resources in the same area. •Trees of the same species growing close together may compete for resources •Grasshoppers negatively affect others of their species by affecting the resources in the same area; they don’t interact but carry out exploitation competition •Territorial species carry out interference competition by preventing others of the same species from obtaining resources in a given area. Niche: how and organism “makes a living.” It is what an organism does and when and where the organism does it. •Fundamental niche: the full range of environmental conditions and resources an organism can possibly occupy and use, especially when limiting factors are absent in its habitat. (ideal and not realized by organisms in nature) Like what you could do if you had lots of money. •Realized niche: The part of fundamental niche that an organism occupies as a result of limiting factors present in its habitat. Like what you would do if you had limited money. •Competitive exclusion principle: (Gause) No two species can occupy the same space and the same resources at the same time successfully •Resource partitioning: species occupy only slightly different niches; five species of warbler living in a spruce tree. Predators; Prey; and the sawtooth graph SYMBIOTIC RELATIONSHIPS •MUTUALISM: both species benefit (+/+) •COMMENSALISM: one species benefits and the other is unaffected (+/0) •PARASITISM: one species benefits and the other is harmed (+/-) COEVOLUTION! Perhaps the most recognized example of coevolution involves pollinators and flowers. The evolve in response to changes in one another. Coevolution: the evolution of one species in response to new adaptations that appear in another species Predator-Prey: Prey may inherit ability to better elude predator Predators may inherit ability to better capture prey Selection for these heritable traits leads to coevolution Coevolution Continued Secondary compounds: toxic compounds in plants to discourage herbivores (what’s “coevolution” about this?) Camouflage/cryptic coloration: -color, pattern, shape, behavior that allows animals to blend in with surroundings; benefits both predator and prey -Snowshoe hare (white in winter; brown in summer) -Moth larvae colored to look like bird droppings -strips are camouflage in forest, etc -plants shaped and colored like surrounding rocks (jeesh!) Warning coloration (aposematic): predators may Coevolution Continued Mimicry: two or more species resemble Batesian: animal with no special defense mechanism has similar coloration as animals who have special defense mechanism and associated coloration (flies that look like bees) Mullerian: bees, yellow jackets, wasps Several animals have same coloration associated with special defense mechanisms Succession Primary (no soil): life arising in areas that never supported life (volcanic islands, lava flows, rock, sand) rock -> lichen -> moss -> grass -> shrub -> trees -> oak hickory forest Secondary (soil): life arises in areas that once supported life but have experienced catastrophe (fire, flood, clearcutting, etc) grass -> shrub -> trees -> oak hickory forest Primary Succession Pioneer species: first species to colonize a newly exposed habitat; grasses, lichen, etc; r-selected species Primary succession 1. Sand dunes on Lake Michigan (Indiana sand dunes of Clements)--can walk through the seral stages on a line perpendicular to the lake shore, going from young to older and older seral stages. a. Sand dunes on shore b. Perennial grasses: stabilize and add organics c. Annuals: further enrich soil and stabilize d. Shrubs e. Pines f. Forest: first black oak and then beech and maple 2. Atlantic coastal sand dune pattern is similar a. Sea oats and beach grass: stabilize and add organics b. Bayberry and beach plum and other shrubs: stabilize and catch sediments c. Pines d. Coastal forest 3. Receding glaciers in Alaska (thin clay deposits) a. Mat-forming mosses and sedges b. Prostrate willows c. Shrubby willows d. Alder thicket e. Spruce-hemlock forest Secondary Succession: reset of established community to an earlier stage by physical or biotic process 1. Clearcut forest a. Annuals -- Crabgrass to horseweed to ragweed b. Aster to broomsedge -- both of these are biennial c. Herbaceous perennials and shrubs d. Pines e. Hardwoods such as oak and maple 2. Size of disturbance determines the amount of the reset and from where the colonists come a. Forest 1. Decrease number of limbs on trees--neighbors fill in 2. Cut/blowdown tree in forest--saplings already present fill in 3. Cut/blowdown number of trees in forest so a much larger gap--colonize by seeds and usually the plants of the mature forest cannot live in such large open gaps due to amount of sunlight. Colonists dependent on availability of recruits at the time of disturbance (potential importance of seed bank), state of the habitat and the ability of the recruit to live there b. Mussel bed in the rocky intertidal 1. Remove a mussel--surrounding individuals close gap 2. Remove number of contiguous individuals--gap will often grow due to wave forces and such large gaps are colonized by water borne propagules Climax Community: after succession…has reached steady state. Secondary Succession occurs more rapidly than primary succession because it is the “reestablishment” of a climax community with existing soil rather than the “formation” of a climax community starting with only rock. Biomes! Tropical Rainforest: (rife with epiphytes) Savannas Temperate grasslands Temperate deciduous forests Deserts Taigas Tundras: possesses characteristic permafrost Fresh water biomes: ponds, lakes, streams, and rivers Marine biomes: (estuaries, intertidal zones, continental shelves, coral reefs, and pelagic ocean Terms to Review! Primary producer Primary consumer Secondary consumer Tertiary consumer Decomposer Food chain Food web Energy, biomass, and numbers pyramids Flow of energy Nutrient recycling Eutrophication Environment Impact Terms to Review Greenhouse effect (global warming) Ozone depletion Acid rain Deforestation/loss of habitat and biodiversity Biomagnification (bioaccumulation) Introduced species (exotic species) Overexploitation Desertification Material Cycles Know the cycles! Reservoirs Assimilation Release Water Carbon Nitrogen Phosphorus