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Unit 3 Environmental Science Area of Study 2: Diversity in the Biosphere Overview of presentation How to prepare for the exam The format of the midyear exam How to respond in the mid-year exam Content to cover for Area of Study 2: Diversity in the Biosphere How to prepare for the midyear exam Summarise notes study design text class notes SACs Age article: http://education.theage.com.au/cmspage.php?intid=154&intversion=63 glossary of terms Past exam papers: 2005 onwards VAEE trial exams Prepare what to take to exam: pen, grey lead pencils, eraser, pens, scientific calculator Term Definition Analyse Break down something to its components and work out how it operates Assess Make a judgement about or measure an outcome or value Classify Place in an appropriate category/group Compare Describe the similarities and differences Contrast Describe the differences Define State the meaning or identify the essential qualities of a term Demonstrate Show by using examples Describe Give an account of what something is like Discuss Examine Examine something by sifting through the information, showing both sides of an argument/issue or the advantages and disadvantages of a particular solution Judge something - weigh up the advantages and disadvantages of something, or measure its value or worth; judge whether, on balance, there are more pros or cons Similar to discuss; sift through the issue and describe the different ‘sides’ of an issue in some detail Explain Provide a reason why/how something is as it is Identify Briefly name or state the feature, factor or component Interpret Translate the meaning or implications within data or text Outline Summarize the main points/elements Predict Suggest what may happen in a given scenario/situation Quantify Use a numerical measure Recommend State what you think is the best option/alternative in a given situation State A brief answer in response to a given situation Suggest Present an hypothesis or make a proposition Evaluate The format of the midyear exam The exam totals 90 marks. There will be a Question and Answer Book consisting of two sections: Section A is the multiple choice section and is worth 20/90 marks, and Section B has short answer questions and is worth 70/90 of the marks. There is a separate answer sheet for the multiple choice questions . The mid-year examination will contribute 33% to the Study Score for Unit 3; Unit 3 SACs contribute 17%. No marks are deducted for wrong answers. How to respond in the midyear exam Use the reading time to read through the questions carefully and have a good look at the data provided. Read the question carefully – all the way through Stop and think before you write - plan Tailor your response to the scenario that has been posed – refer to details of this scenario in your response Ensure you have met all the requirements of the question Be concise: use dot points and do not rewrite the question Show all your workings for questions that require calculations If you are asked to give a specific number of responses, give the number requested If you are asked to evaluate or give an opinion, be decisive Back up your contention with facts and figures Watch the time: 90 marks in 90 minutes Overview of Area of Study 2: Diversity in the Biosphere What is biodiversity? Why is it important? What are the threats to biodiversity? How is biodiversity assessed? How is biodiversity maintained and protected? Examination of a selected endangered species and its management. Overview of Area of Study 2: Diversity in the Biosphere What is biodiversity? Why is it important? What are the threats to biodiversity? How is biodiversity assessed? How is biodiversity maintained and protected? Examination of a selected endangered species and its management. Biodiversity Biodiversity is the variety of living organisms – plants, animals and microorganisms – in a particular area, country, ecosystem or on Earth. It includes the variety of species, the variety within species, and the variety of different habitats and ecosystems within a region. Biodiversity Biodiversity The diversity of species on earth has changed over time. New species have evolved in response to changes in the environment and some species have become extinct. Biodiversity Evolution, migration and extinctions have occurred throughout time. The rate of species loss has increased in historic times, a phenomenon known as accelerated extinction. Current rates of loss are 100 – 1000 times the historic ‘background’ levels. (UN meeting on Convention on Biological Diversity, 2010) Processes that allow evolutionary change mutation migration natural selection Selection for a particular, advantageous trait, which then affects the genes passed onto the next generation genetic drift Random events, that affect the proportion of individuals with a particular trait passing on their genes to the next generation, is known as genetic drift. Species and population A species is the most definitive classification level or taxon (or group of organisms) that are genetically so similar that they can interbreed and reproduce fertile offspring. A population is a group of individuals of a particular species which share a particular habitat in a particular area. Habitat and range A habitat is the type of environment the taxon is adapted to. It may be an area with a very specific environment, or the taxon may have a very general habitat. A range is the location of its geographic area of habitat inhabited by a taxon. It may be continuous, or populations of the species may be isolated or separate but interacting, so forming a metapopulation. A small area of native vegetation is deemed a remnant. A population Where populations are isolated from each other, there is no gene flow between the two populations. Over time, the genotype of different populations diverge and they may eventually form a subspecies or a new species. An ecosystem An ecosystem is a community of interdependent species of plants, animals and microorganisms (the biotic component) occupying a certain area, together with the soil and other abiotic components of the environment. An ecosystem The diversity of abiotic features on Earth has lead to the development of many different types of ecosystem. Within each ecosystem is a diversity of habitats. An ecosystem Within an ecosystem there is a complex web of relationships between different species and with their physical environment. Each species has its particular niche. A community is a set of populations of plants and animals living and closely interacting in a common habitat over a shared range. An ecosystem A trophic level consists of all the species of that ecosystem that compete for food. An ecosystem Relationships between individuals of different species can be: competition predation symbiosis: live together on an intimate relationship - parasitism: parasite benefits, but detrimental to the host - commensalism: one benefits; other no harm or benefit - mutualism: both benefit The sea anemone benefits from the clownfish because it can feed on scraps of food left by the clownfish. The clownfish benefits by being protected from predators by the stinging cells in the anemone’s tentacles. The mucus coating on the clown fish’s skin contains a chemical inhibitor that prevents the discharge of stinging cells in the tentacles: mutualism The small remora fish scavenges on leftover bits of food after the reef shark has fed. The shark is neither helped nor harmed by the presence of these fish: commensalism The host is a reef fish. The tick-like creatures called isopods attach to the host’s skin and gills and obtain their nutrients from the fish’s blood. A isopods only survive while they are attached to the reef fish or until the reef fish dies: parasitism Types of biodiversity There are three types of biodiversity: species diversity genetic diversity ecosystem diversity Species diversity Species diversity is the variety of species in a particular ecosystem or area. Species diversity is the number of species in an area, that is the species richness, and the abundance of each species. Species diversity Rarity Three components can contribute to the rarity of a species: very low population density or small population size restricted geographic range a highly specific habitat: requires a narrow set of ecological requirements to survive A species only needs to display one of these characteristics to be considered rare. Endemism Endemic species are restricted to one particular location. Regions of the world with particularly high levels of biodiversity are called biodiversity hot spots. Genetic diversity Genetic diversity is the range of genetic material contained in the alleles of a taxon or ecosystem. It usually refers to variation in genetic information between individuals of the same population or species, but can also be used to refer to the genetic diversity between related species. Because it is difficult to measure the genetic variation of a taxon, appearance (phenotype) rather than their genes (genotype) is often used to measure genetic diversity. These happy face spiders (Theridion grallator) look different, but since they can interbreed they are considered the same species. Genetic diversity Genetic diversity plays an important role in adaptability and survival of a population or species. Populations that have very little genetic variation are at a great risk. The sources of genetic variation are: mutations: variations in habitat: eg: a mosaic of different aged vegetation. gene flow: the movement of genes from one population to another. sexual reproduction: this ‘genetic shuffling’ is an important source of genetic variation. Ecosystem diversity Ecosystem diversity refers to the variety of different habitats and ecosystems within a given area. 2010 exam Q.14 The Southern Bent-wing Bat roosts and breeds only in caves and mineshafts in southeastern South Australia and southwestern Victoria. This means that the species a. has a wide variety of habitats. b. is at risk of genetic swamping. c. is endemic to this region of Australia. d. needs demographic variation to occur to maintain population size. Overview of Area of Study 2: Diversity in the Biosphere What is biodiversity? Why is it important? What are the threats to biodiversity? How is biodiversity assessed? How is biodiversity maintained and protected? Examination of a selected endangered species and its management. Importance of preserving biodiversity Benefits for humans: biological resource ecosystem services social benefits Importance of preserving biodiversity A species may be a potential biological resource in the future or for future generations, such as for: food medicines and pharmaceuticals fibres or other materials ornamental plants and pets breeding stock for use in agriculture. Biological resources Rubber is from the latex tree, linen from flax, rope from hemp, cotton from cotton, wool from sheep and goats, silk from silkworms. Honey, beeswax, rattan, wicker, bamboo, timber, perfumes, spices and herbs are all from plants and animals Approximately 20% of prescription drugs are derived from plants. The venom of certain snakes is the basis for substances which enables blood clots to form Wheat, maize and rice supply one half of the world’s food, and 90% of the world's food is derived from only 15 species of plants – out of 80,000 potentially edible plants Ecosystem services Ecosystem services: ecosystems provide humans with many natural services including: energy transfers waste treatment clean air and water climate stability soil formation and maintenance pollination or seed dispersal natural predators of pest species the cycling of nutrients, minerals and gases. Ecosystem services Leguminous plants, such as clover, lupines and alfalfa, have a symbiotic relationship with Rhizobia bacteria in the nodules in their root systems. This allows these plants to ‘fix’ nitrogen from the atmosphere and release this essential element to other plants when it dies and decays in the soil. Social benefits of biodiversity Social benefits: educational, scientific, cultural, spiritual, aesthetic, tourist and recreational value. Social benefits of biodiversity Many native species are a part of our cultural heritage and an important source of tourism. Tourism from the Great Barrier Reef contributes over $800 million per annum, which is additional to its value for commercial fisheries. Benefits of biodiversity to humans Estimates of various benefits of biodiversity to humans ($US trillion) Soil formation 17.1 Recreation 3.0 Nutrient cycling 2.3 Water regulation and supply 2.3 Climate regulation (temperature and precipitation) 1.8 Habitat 1.4 Flood and storm protection 1.1 Food and raw materials production 0.8 Genetic resources 0.8 Atmospheric gas balance 0.7 Pollination 0.4 All other services 1.6 Total value of biodiversity benefits to humans: $US 33.3 trillion source: Adapted from R. Costanza et al., “The Value of the World’s Ecosystem Services and Natural Capital,” Nature, Vol. 387 (1997), p. 256. 2008 exam Q 5e Discuss the reasons for maintaining biodiversity in our world for human health and wellbeing. Include some examples in your answer. (4 marks) Overview of Area of Study 2: Diversity in the Biosphere What is biodiversity? Why is it important? What are the threats to biodiversity? How is biodiversity assessed? How is biodiversity maintained and protected? Examination of a selected endangered species and its management. Threats to biodiversity Biodiversity can be reduced through: habitat destruction or modification introduced species over-exploitation of biological resources economic and scientific threats to genetic diversity the flow-on effect of changes to other species within the ecosystem reduced population size Habitat destruction or modification Habitat destruction and modification may precipitates the loss of species which are form and depend upon that habitat: habitat destruction resulting from clearing of natural habitat for agriculture, urbanisation or other landuse. degradation results from the deterioration of the quality of the habitat due to pollution, erosion, salinity or over-use. habitat change resulting from events such as change in fire regime, extreme weather events, tectonic activity and climate change. fragmentation of the habitat, where the clearance of pockets of vegetation leave a series of fragments of intact habitat. If the pockets of remnant vegetation are isolated and too small to support viable populations of species, or if the fragments are not connected, the impact can be significant. Habitat destruction or modification Deforestation and increased roadbuilding in the Amazon rainforest are a significant concern because of increased human encroachment upon wild areas. Introduced species An introduced, or exotic species is one which has been deliberately or accidentally imported into a region. These species may become a pest or weed to indigenous species by: occupying the same niche as an indigenous species within the ecosystem, competing for resources such as food or space preying on indigenous species within the ecosystem poisonous to indigenous species degrading or modifying the habitat to the detriment of the indigenous species. Over-exploitation of biological resources Over-exploitation results from harvesting biological resources at an unsustainable rate. Some examples of species which have been over-exploited include: the deforestation of land in the Amazon forest for timber and agricultural land harvesting whales for their meat and oil slaughtering seals for their furs and oil hunting elephants and for the ivory in their tusks hunting rhinoceros for the use of their horn for to produce aphrodisiacs over-fishing of Atlantic salmon as a source of food felling the trees of Easter Island by the original inhabitants to transport their carved status to the coastline Economic and scientific threats to genetic diversity The manipulation of species commonly used by humans through crop breeding, animal husbandry and genetic modification have developed domesticated species and hybrids which are quite different genetically from their original, wild ancestors, and has created a much narrower gene pool. This has lead to the loss of some genetic diversity and lowered resilience to threats, such as diseases, plagues and extreme weather events. Today, 80% of our food is sources from 20 kinds of plants worldwide, and much of our meat is sources from a few species of animal. eg: the Irish potato famine of 1847, where the potato blight wiped out virtually all potato crops in Ireland, as they were bred from a very small number of ‘ancestor’ plants (brought back from the Americas) that did not have resistance to this disease. The flow-on effect of changes to other species within the ecosystem Because species within an ecosystem are interdependent, loss or weakening of one species can have a flow on effect upon the other species it interacts with. This could be the impact of the loss or weakening of a species which: is a food source provides a vital component to the niche habitat assists with a plant’s pollination or seed dispersal is a predator, competitor or has a symbiotic relationship with the species. Reduced population size Threats may not lead to the extinction of species, but may significantly reduce population size. This in itself becomes a threat as the population becomes vulnerability to a cascade of genetic, demographic and environmental factors. All the animals shown above suffer from low population size. Scientists estimate that about 1000 Kemp’s Ridley sea turtles (left), 300 right whales (centre) and 65 northern hairy-nosed wombats (right) survive in the wild. Reduced population size Very small populations pose a number of dangers: greater vulnerability to genetic drift inbreeding depression low genetic variation, because the gene pool is greatly reduced possibility of genetic swamping demographic variation Vulnerability to genetic drift Small populations are more susceptible to genetic drift, that is, that random chance events will reduce the frequency of particular alleles, which could be alleles for characteristics which confer an advantage to the next generation. Inbreeding depression In any population there may be alleles for a deleterious trait. In a large population, there is a low probability an individual will wind up with both alleles for the deleterious trait. In a small population, where mating between two individuals with similar genotype is inevitable, there is a greater chance an individual will have two alleles for such a trait, and that that disadvantageous trait will be expressed. Inbreeding over a number of generations can lead to the genetic weakening of the population at a whole, a phenomenon called inbreeding depression. A small number of adders (Vipera berus) experienced inbreeding depression when farming activities in Sweden isolated them from other adder populations. Higher proportions of stillborn and deformed offspring were born in the isolated population than in the larger populations. When researchers introduced adders from other populations - an example of outbreeding - the isolated population recovered and produced a higher proportion of viable offspring. Low Genetic Variation Genetic variation allows species to adapt and evolve in response to changing environmental conditions. For example, if a population is exposed to a new disease, natural selection will confer advantage to individuals with genes for resistance to the disease - if they exist in the population. Cheetah (left) populations have low amounts of genetic variation, while lion (right) populations typically have higher amounts. The lion in more likely to be resilient to any threats. In a small population there will be less genetic diversity. Low Genetic Variation As an endangered species dwindles, it loses genetic variation - and even if the species rebounds, its level of genetic variation will not. Genetic variation will only slowly be restored through the accumulation of mutations, migration and genetic shuffling over many generations. For this reason, an endangered species with low genetic variation may risk extinction long after its population size has recovered. Genetic swamping If two isolated populations of a species are reunited through a habitat change or reintroduction program, the genetic diversity of the smaller population may be lost in the process. This is genetic swamping, where the event may lead to the ‘dilution’ or loss of potentially advantageous alleles it contained. Demographic variation In any population there is natural variation in population dynamics: the birth rates, death rates, sex ratio, migration etc. Normally, this does not have a significant impact on the long term viability of the population as a whole, but where the population is very small, this natural demographic variation can have deleterious effects on the whole population. eg: a species of bird may vary in the number of eggs laid in the breeding system. If the population reaches very small numbers and then has a year where the number of eggs laid is within its normal variability, but at its lowest value within that range, its risk of extinction may rise. 2008 exam Q 14. Two previously isolated populations of a particular species come into contact and breed with each other. One of the populations is much larger than the other. A potential consequence for the smaller population may be: a. genetic drift b. genetic swamping c. inbreeding d. demographic variation Overview of Area of Study 2: Diversity in the Biosphere What is biodiversity? Why is it important? What are the threats to biodiversity? How is biodiversity assessed? How is biodiversity maintained and protected? Examination of a selected endangered species and its management. Assessment of biodiversity Measuring the species richness or diversity of a particular area is usually done by surveys and monitoring by: counting the species and numbers of individuals via: sight and count individuals eg: spotlighting capture (and possibly tag) and release the individuals electronic surveillance indirect evidence of the species, eg: scats, tracks recordings of sightings by field naturalists assessing of randomly selected sample quadrats or transects. species present relative abundance Other aspects may also be investigated: weight, health, signs of breeding. Genetic diversity can be conducted through genetic research, or from observing variation on phenotype. Assessment of biodiversity This data can then be used to assess biodiversity. The numerical methods for measuring biodiversity include: species richness: the number of species in a region; the more species, the greater the richness. Does not take into account of the number of individuals of each species present. species diversity: the number of different species and the number of individuals of each species (ie: each species’ relative abundance) species evenness: the degree of similarity of population size for each of the species; the more similar the abundance of each species the greater the evenness. A higher level of biodiversity exists when species of similar trophic levels have high species evenness. endemism: the number of endemic species (that only occur in one region) rarity: the number of rare species. Assessment of biodiversity Two indices which are commonly used to measure the species diversity of a region: Simpson’s Diversity Index (D): index which takes into account the species richness and the abundance of each species. Shannon-Weiner Diversity Index (H): index which takes into account species richness and abundance of each species within a habitat, but is increased by having high species evenness Other indices can be created to measure species diversity. You will be given the formula for index in exam. Assessment of biodiversity In measuring biodiversity, it is common to collect two or more sets of data for comparison or change over time. 2010 exam: Assessment of biodiversity But there is natural variability in the data collected within an ecosystems because: variation over space: the natural and random variation in the distribution of species within its range variation over time: eg: diurnal changes, seasonal changes, lunar and tidal movements, breeding periods etc demographic variations: natural variations in birth rate, death rate, sex ratio. Because ecological systems show a high level of natural variability it is necessary to determine whether there is a significant difference or change between two sets of data. Assessment of biodiversity Statistical analysis can be used to determine whether there has been significant difference or change. This can be achieved by checking if the difference or change falls within the known level of variation. The more data, the more reliable the analysis. 2006 exam Q10: a. b. c. d. Species diversity is best measured by counting: the total number of species the total number of individuals the number of species and the relative abundance of each the number of different ecosystems available in the habitat Q 11: Genetic diversity in best assessed by determining: a. small variations within a species b. the risk of extinction of the species c. the relative abundance of the species d. the number of different species in the environment 2006 exam Q 16. A scientist monitors a population of possums for six years. Year 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 Population 44 42 45 40 43 44 Which conclusion best supports the above data: a. The population is stable b. The population is steadily increasing c. An exotic competitor was removed in 2002 d. A predator was introduced into the habitat in 2003. Overview of Area of Study 2: Diversity in the Biosphere What is biodiversity? Why is it important? What are the threats to biodiversity? How is biodiversity assessed? How is biodiversity maintained and protected? Examination of a selected endangered species and its management. Conservation of biodiversity Preservation: protect the biosphere in its natural state. (Ecologically) sustainable development: the use of biological resources in a way and at a rate that does not limit its availability to future generations (ie: intergenerational equity). Precautionary principle: where there is a threat of serious or irreversible damage to the environment by a proposed activity, the lack of full scientific certainty about the possible impacts should not be used as a reason to proceed. Conservation of biodiversity When planning conservation strategies, biodiversity needs to be considered at the: gene level population level species level ecosystem or habitat level The most effective conservation occurs when all are considered together. Conservation of biodiversity Methods of managing biodiversity include: risk assessment: evaluating the level of threat the species, population or ecosystem is exposed to evaluating the risk of potential developments protecting individual species or specific populations of a species maintaining or rehabilitating the habitat pest control relocation and reintroduction programs sustainable use of biological resources Risk assessment Risk of extinction (ER) involves the use of data to determine either: the probability of extinction of the species for a given period, eg: ER 80% (0.8) in the next 10 years. the carrying capacity of the habitat and how a known amount of habitat loss is likely to impact upon population numbers within a given period, ie: ER 10% (or 0.1) in next 5 years if scenario x occurs. Risk of extinction requires the following data: demographic data on the species current population numbers and the rate of population loss the amount of habitat area (territory) required by each individual of the species the amount of remaining habitat and its quality. Risk assessment can also be determined by ascertaining the minimum viable population required for the species to survive. 2010 exam Q. 13 The probability (calculated risk) of extinction of this Southern Bentwing Bat population over the next fifteen years is estimated to be 0.70. A larger population in a second separate cave system has a probability of extinction estimated to be 0.20 over the same period. Which of the following best gives the probability of extinction of both populations in the next fifteen years? a. 0.14 b. 0.27 c. 0.50 d. 0.97 Risk assessment Population Viability Analysis (PVA) is a tool used to assist in determining the level of risk and the appropriate management strategies to conserve a species or population. It uses computer-based ecological modelling and the information used in risk assessment. It uses this information to predict the likely outcome, for the species or population, of various scenario, and: ranks the management options available, and identifies where further research is needed. 2005 exam Q.4e Outline a scientific process for evaluating the threats to the species. (1 mark) Population Viability Analysis (PVA) Risk of extinction (ER) Risk assessment Assigning conservation status classifies the level of risk confronting a taxon. The International Union for the Conservation of Nature (IUCN) has devised a system to award conservation status – ‘redlist’. The criteria used include: the population size and the observed population change over time the total number of mature adults the extent of the species’ range (geographic distribution) the probability of extinction in the wild over a designated number of years or generations. Commonwealth and state government use a similar process to assign conservation status. conservation status definition Extinct no reasonable doubt the last individual has died Extinct in wild survives only in cultivation or captivity or naturalised community Critically endangered extreme high risk of extinction in the wild in the immediate future ER ≥ 50% within 10 years or 3 generations Endangered very high risk of extinction in the wild in the near future ER ≥ 20% within 20 years or 5 generations Vulnerable high risk of extinction in the wild in the medium-term future ER ≥ 10% within 100 years Conservation dependent part of a conservation program, the cessation of which would result in the taxon moving into one of the above categories Data deficient Low risk Not evaluated risk of extinction 2007 exam Q 17 In Victoria, the conservation status of the Striped Legless Lizard is ‘endangered’, while the Swamp Skink is regarded as ‘vulnerable’: This means the Striped Legless Lizard: a. is in competition with the Swamp Skink b. will survive for longer than the Swamp Skink c. has a population size smaller than the Swamp Skink d. is at greater risk of extinction than the Swamp Skink Evaluating the risk of potential developments Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) is the assessment of environmental impact of a major development before it proceeds. It is an example of the precautionary principle in action. It may not prevent development from proceeding, even if environmental degradation is predicted to occur, if the potential social and economic or other environmental benefits are deemed to outweigh the potential losses. An EIA involves: synthesis of existing information on native species and the region additional research conducted by experts considers alternative designs and locations includes risk assessment techniques allows for community consultation and input arranges for ongoing monitoring if the project does proceed attempts to balance environmental, social and economic considerations. Evaluating the risk of potential developments An EIA is required when the proposal: requires the clearing over 10ha of native vegetation is deemed to be likely to affect endangered species is proposed for a region of high conservation significance is not authorised under any existing forest management plan may eventually involve the loss of significant proportion of an species’ habitat is located within a wetland listed under the Ramsar Convention may have an extensive or major impact on an aquatic, estuarine or marine ecosystem may have an extensive or major impact on human health has potential carbon emissions exceeding 200 000 tonnes Protecting individual species or specific populations of a species International level: Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES) 1992 Ensures that the international trade in biological resources does not pose a threat or contribute to the decline or possible extinction of any species Ramsar Convention 1983 Conservation of wetland habitats and paths used by migratory birds Convention on Biological Diversity 1992 National level: National Strategy for the Conservation of Australia’s Biological Diversity 1996 Environmental Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act 1999 State level: Victorian Flora and Fauna Guarantee Act 1988 Provides legal protection and a Recovery Plan for species and ecosystems which have been identified as being ‘threatened’. Flora & Fauna Guarantee Act (1988) It involves a process of investigation and research. If a species is found to be in need to protection, it is listed as ‘threatened’ and an Action Statement is produced which: identifies threats to the species and designates its conservation status confers legal protection for the species; authorities must prosecute those who injure or cause the loss of individuals of the species establishes a management plan (Recovery Plan) for its conservation assigns responsibility to government agencies and individuals establishes ongoing monitoring arranges for review of their status from time to time Members of the public, including experts, can nominate a species or Victorian population they believe is at risk of extinction. Protecting and rehabilitating habitat Conservation reserves: national parks, conservation reserves, multiuse reserves Reducing vegetation clearance Habitat rehabilitation: revegetation, replanting, erosion repair, address contamination and pollution Habitat maintenance: prevention of degradation: control burning to produce a mosaic of different aged habitats, fencing to obstruct pests, erosion prevention, etc Creating or preserving wildlife corridors which link fragments of remnant vegetation: promoting gene flow and genetic diversity the ability for individuals to migrate in response to environmental change http://ngm.nationalgeographic.com/2009/03/jaguars/photo-map-interactive Pest control The control of pest animals, weeds or diseases can be achieved by: culling or relocating pests and weed erecting fences to keep out pests, methods of preventing seeds and diseases from entering areas. introducing natural predators to the pest Translocation and reintroduction programs Native species may over-breed and be at risk of exceeding their habitat’s carrying capacity. Translocation can overcome this problem. Individuals from one population may be translocated to another region where population numbers are low or have died out. Species may be propagated in herbaria or bred through a captive breeding program zoos or sanctuaries, and reintroduced back into the wild. The problems associated with these strategies can be reduced by: carefully staged transitions in reintroductions tracking the parentage of individuals in the program (‘pedigree books’) to reduce inbreeding outbreeding - swap individuals between different breeding programs - add individuals from the wild to the program from time to time - releases of some captive bred individuals to the wild populations genetic testing and monitoring of their phenotype variety. Sustainable use of biological resources The concept of conservation and sustainable development does not preclude the harvesting of use of a species or region, but they must be used in a way that ensures it is available for future generations This can be achieved through: Ecotourism: allowing tourist use of the site but in a way which causes least possible degradation to the site and has an environmental educative component. Sustainable harvesting of biological resources: resources, such as trees and fish, are harvested or used at a rate which minimises impact and ensure the resource is maintained into the long term future. 2005 exam Q. 10. Which one of the following management strategies is likely to increase genetic diversity in a population of a species? a. wildlife corridors connecting different habitats b. culling some animals to allow more access to food c. fencing their breeding habitat to exclude predators d. removal of some pairs for a captive breeding program and reintroduction to this habitat Evaluating efforts to protect biodiversity Requires research, surveying and/or monitoring to establish: Has the genetic diversity increased? Have the species/population bred in the wild? Has the health of individuals been maintained? Has the range of the species/population expanded? Have pest species declined? Has habitat quality improved? Has species’ abundance or diversity been maintained or increased? Overview of Area of Study 2: Diversity in the Biosphere What is biodiversity? Why is it important? What are the threats to biodiversity? How is biodiversity assessed? How is biodiversity maintained and protected? Examination of a selected endangered species and its management. Your endangered species a description of the animal and its survival needs: its original range, habitat and other requirements the current geographic locations of the remaining populations and a history of its population decline, including the threats that have caused its decline and current population numbers the species’ conservation status, what this status means in terms of level of threat and its risk of extinction, and the reasons why it has been awarded this status strategies set out in the Action Statement to conserve the species and the stakeholders involved in the species’ conservation and their roles evaluation of the strategies implemented to conserve the species a detailed description of a remaining population of the species: the habitat it provides the threats that exist in this population strategies which have been implemented to protect this population monitoring used to evaluate the strategies an evaluation of how the population is being managed