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Chapter 8 The Cellular Basis of Reproduction and Inheritance PowerPoint Lectures for Campbell Biology: Concepts & Connections, Seventh Edition Reece, Taylor, Simon, and Dickey © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Lecture by Edward J. Zalisko Cellular basis of Reproduction and Inheritance • Why do organisms resemble parents? Organisms reproduce their own kind, a key characteristic of life. CELL DIVISION AND REPRODUCTION © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. 8.1 Cell division plays many important roles in the lives of organisms Dividing cells in an early human embryo Cell division – Is when one cell gives rise to two cells – is reproduction at the cellular level, – requires the duplication of chromosomes, and – sorts new sets of chromosomes into the resulting pair of daughter cells. © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. 8.1 Cell division plays many important roles in the lives of organisms Cell division is used – for reproduction of single-celled organisms, – growth of multicellular organisms from a fertilized egg into an adult, – repair and replacement of cells, and – sperm and egg production. © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. 8.1 Cell division plays many important roles in the lives of organisms Living organisms reproduce by two methods. – Asexual reproduction – produces offspring that are identical to the original cell or organism and – involves inheritance of all genes from one parent. – Sexual reproduction – produces offspring that are similar to the parents, but show variations in traits and – involves inheritance of unique sets of genes from two parents. © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 8.1A A yeast cell producing a genetically identical daughter cell An African violet reproducing asexually from a cutting (the large leaf on the left) Figure 8.1D Sexual reproduction produces offspring with unique combinations of genes. 8.2 Prokaryotes reproduce by binary fission Prokaryotes (bacteria and archaea) reproduce by binary fission (“dividing in half”). The chromosome of a prokaryote is – a single circular DNA molecule associated with proteins and – much smaller than those of eukaryotes. © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. 8.2 Prokaryotes reproduce by binary fission Binary fission of a prokaryote occurs in three stages: 1. duplication of the chromosome and separation of the copies, 2. continued elongation of the cell and movement of the copies, and 3. division into two daughter cells. © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 8.2A_s1 Plasma membrane Prokaryotic chromosome Cell wall 1 Duplication of the chromosome and separation of the copies Figure 8.2A_s2 Plasma membrane Prokaryotic chromosome Cell wall 1 Duplication of the chromosome and separation of the copies 2 Continued elongation of the cell and movement of the copies Figure 8.2A_s3 Plasma membrane Prokaryotic chromosome Cell wall 3 1 Duplication of the chromosome and separation of the copies 2 Continued elongation of the cell and movement of the copies Division into two daughter cells Figure 8.2B Prokaryotic chromosomes THE EUKARYOTIC CELL CYCLE AND MITOSIS © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. 8.3 The large, complex chromosomes of eukaryotes duplicate with each cell division Eukaryotic cells – are more complex and larger than prokaryotic cells, – have more genes, and – store most of their genes on multiple linear chromosomes within the nucleus. A human kidney cell dividing © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. 8.3 The large, complex chromosomes of eukaryotes duplicate with each cell division Eukaryotic chromosomes are composed of chromatin consisting of – one long DNA molecule and – histone proteins that 1. help maintain the chromosome structure and 2. control the activity of its genes. © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 8.3A A plant cell (from an African blood lily) just before cell division Figure 8.3B Chromosomes DNA molecules Sister chromatids Chromosome duplication Centromere Sister chromatids Chromosome distribution to the daughter cells 8.3 The large, complex chromosomes of eukaryotes duplicate with each cell division Before a eukaryotic cell begins to divide, it duplicates all of its chromosomes, resulting in – two copies called sister chromatids – joined together by a narrowed “waist” called the centromere. When a cell divides, the sister chromatids – separate from each other, now called chromosomes, and – sort into separate daughter cells. © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. 8.3 The large, complex chromosomes of eukaryotes duplicate with each cell division To prepare for division, the chromatin becomes – highly compact and – visible with a microscope. © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 8.3B_1 Chromosomes DNA molecules Chromosome duplication Centromere Sister chromatids Chromosome distribution to the daughter cells 8.4 The cell cycle multiplies cells The cell cycle is an ordered sequence of events that extends – from the time a cell is first formed from a dividing parent cell – until its own division. © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. 8.4 The cell cycle multiplies cells The cell cycle consists of two stages, characterized as follows: 1. Interphase: duplication of cell contents – G1—growth, increase in cytoplasm – S—duplication of chromosomes – G2—growth, preparation for division 2. Mitotic phase: division – Mitosis—division of the nucleus – Cytokinesis—division of cytoplasm © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 8.4 G1 (first gap) S (DNA synthesis) M G2 (second gap) 8.5 Cell division is a continuum of dynamic changes Mitosis is unique to eukaryotes Mitosis progresses through a series of stages: – Prophase, – Prometaphase, – Metaphase, – Anaphase, and – Telophase. Cytokinesis often overlaps telophase. © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. 8.5 Cell division is a continuum of dynamic changes A mitotic spindle is – required to divide the chromosomes, – composed of microtubules, and – produced by centrosomes, structures in the cytoplasm that – organize microtubule arrangement and – contain a pair of centrioles in animal cells. © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Phases in Mitosis Prophase – Chromatin fiber coils into chromosomes; Centriole divides Prometaphase – Chromosomes appear as double structures, each comprising of a pair of sister chromatids – Centrioles move to opposite poles; spindle fibers form Metaphase – Chromosomes line up on the metaphase plate of the cell Anaphase – Centromeres split & daughter chromosomes are pulled apart and directed towards opposite poles Telophase – Daughter nuclei forms at opposite poles and cytoplasm divides by Cytokinesis 8.5 Cell division is a continuum of dynamic changes A mitotic spindle is – required to divide the chromosomes, – composed of microtubules, and – produced by centrosomes, structures in the cytoplasm that – organize microtubule arrangement and – contain a pair of centrioles in animal cells. Video: Animal Mitosis Video: Sea Urchin (time lapse) © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. 8.5 Cell division is a continuum of dynamic changes Interphase – The cytoplasmic contents double, – two centrosomes form, – chromosomes duplicate in the nucleus during the S phase, and – nucleoli, sites of ribosome assembly, are visible. © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 8.5_1 INTERPHASE Centrosomes (with centriole pairs) Centrioles Nuclear envelope Chromatin Plasma membrane MITOSIS Prophase Prometaphase Early mitotic spindle Centrosome Fragments of the nuclear envelope Kinetochore Centromere Chromosome, consisting of two sister chromatids Spindle microtubules Figure 8.5_left MITOSIS INTERPHASE Prophase Centrosomes (with centriole pairs) Centrioles Nuclear envelope Early mitotic spindle Chromatin Prometaphase Centrosome Fragments of the nuclear envelope Kinetochore Plasma membrane Centromere Chromosome, consisting of two sister chromatids Spindle microtubules 8.5 Cell division is a continuum of dynamic changes Prophase – In the cytoplasm microtubules begin to emerge from centrosomes, forming the spindle. – In the nucleus – chromosomes coil and become compact and – nucleoli disappear. © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. 8.5 Cell division is a continuum of dynamic changes Prometaphase – Spindle microtubules reach chromosomes, where they – attach at kinetochores on the centromeres of sister chromatids and – move chromosomes to the center of the cell through associated protein “motors.” – Other microtubules meet those from the opposite poles. – The nuclear envelope disappears. © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 8.5_5 MITOSIS Anaphase Metaphase Metaphase plate Mitotic spindle Daughter chromosomes Telophase and Cytokinesis Cleavage furrow Nuclear envelope forming Figure 8.5_right MITOSIS Anaphase Metaphase Telophase and Cytokinesis Metaphase plate Cleavage furrow Mitotic spindle Daughter chromosomes Nuclear envelope forming 8.5 Cell division is a continuum of dynamic changes Metaphase – The mitotic spindle is fully formed. – Chromosomes align at the cell equator. – Kinetochores of sister chromatids are facing the opposite poles of the spindle. – Applying Your Knowledge By the end of metaphase – How many chromosomes are present in one human cell? – How many chromatids are present in one human cell? © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. 8.5 Cell division is a continuum of dynamic changes Anaphase – Sister chromatids separate at the centromeres. – Daughter chromosomes are moved to opposite poles of the cell – The cell elongates due to lengthening of nonkinetochore microtubules. – Applying Your Knowledge By the end of anaphase – – © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. How many chromosomes are present in one human cell? How many chromatids are present in one human cell? 8.5 Cell division is a continuum of dynamic changes Telophase – The cell continues to elongate. – The nuclear envelope forms around chromosomes at each pole, establishing daughter nuclei. – Chromatin uncoils and nucleoli reappear. – The spindle disappears. – Applying Your Knowledge By the end of telophase – How many chromosomes are present in one nucleus within the human cell? – Are the nuclei identical or different? © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. 8.5 Cell division is a continuum of dynamic changes Cytokinesis, the cytoplasm is divided into separate cells. – Applying Your Knowledge By the end of cytokinesis – How many chromosomes are present in one human cell? – How many chromatids are present in one human cell? – Do the daughter cells have same number of chromosomes as the original cell? © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. 8.6 Cytokinesis differs for plant and animal cells In animal cells, cytokinesis occurs as 1. a cleavage furrow forms from a contracting ring of microfilaments, interacting with myosin, and 2. the cleavage furrow deepens to separate the contents into two cells. © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 8.6A Cytokinesis of an animal cell: Cleavage furrow Contracting ring of microfilaments Daughter cells Cleavage furrow 8.6 Cytokinesis differs for plant and animal cells In plant cells, cytokinesis occurs as 1. a cell plate forms in the middle, from vesicles containing cell wall material, 2. the cell plate grows outward to reach the edges, dividing the contents into two cells, 3. each cell now possesses a plasma membrane and cell wall. © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 8.6B New cell wall Cytokinesis Cell wall of the parent cell Cell wall Plasma membrane Daughter nucleus Cell plate forming Vesicles containing cell wall material Cell plate Daughter cells 8.7 Anchorage, cell density, and chemical growth factors affect cell division Factors that control cell division – the presence of essential nutrients, – growth factors, proteins that stimulate division. There are many growth factors. Eg: Endotheilial growth factor, – density of cells. Crowded cells stop dividing, and this is known as density-dependent inhibition, – anchorage. Cells need to be in contact with a solid surface to divide. This is known as anchorage dependence. © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 8.7A Cultured cells suspended in liquid The addition of growth factor Figure 8.7B Anchorage Single layer of cells Removal of cells Restoration of single layer by cell division 8.8 Growth factors signal the cell cycle control system The cell cycle control system is a cycling set of molecules in the cell that – triggers and – coordinates key events in the cell cycle. Checkpoints in the cell cycle can – stop an event or – signal an event to proceed. © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. 8.8 Growth factors signal the cell cycle control system There are three major checkpoints in the cell cycle. 1. G1 checkpoint – allows entry into the S phase or – causes the cell to leave the cycle, entering a nondividing G0 phase. 2. G2 checkpoint, and 3. M checkpoint. Research on the control of the cell cycle is one of the hottest areas in biology today. © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 8.8A G1 checkpoint G0 G1 S Control system M G2 M checkpoint G2 checkpoint Figure 8.8B Growth factor EXTRACELLULAR FLUID Plasma membrane Relay proteins Receptor protein Signal transduction pathway G1 checkpoint G1 S Control system M G2 CYTOPLASM 8.9 CONNECTION: Growing out of control, cancer cells produce malignant tumors Cancer currently claims the lives of 20% of the people in the United States and other industrialized nations. Cancer is a disease of the cell cycle. Cancer cells escape controls on the cell cycle. Cancer cells – divide rapidly, often in the absence of growth factors, – spread to other tissues through the circulatory system, and – growth is not inhibited by other cells (no density-dependent inhibition) © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. 8.9 CONNECTION: Growing out of control, cancer cells produce malignant tumors A tumor is an abnormally growing mass of body cells. – Benign tumors remain at the original site. – Malignant tumors spread to other locations, called metastasis. © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. 8.9 CONNECTION: Growing out of control, cancer cells produce malignant tumors Cancers are named according to the organ or tissue in which they originate. – Carcinomas arise in external or internal body coverings. – Sarcomas arise in supportive and connective tissue. – Leukemias and lymphomas arise from blood-forming tissues. © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 8.9 Lymph vessels Blood vessel Tumor Tumor in another part of the body Glandular tissue Growth Invasion Metastasis 8.9 CONNECTION: Growing out of control, cancer cells produce malignant tumors Cancer treatments – Localized tumors can be – removed surgically and/or – treated with concentrated beams of high-energy radiation. – Chemotherapy is used for metastatic tumors. – Chemo drugs inhibit mitosis – Eg: Vinblastine – inhibits assembly of the spindle – © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Taxol - prevents disassembly of spindle 8.10 Review: Mitosis provides for growth, cell replacement, and asexual reproduction When the cell cycle operates normally, mitosis produces genetically identical cells for – growth, – replacement of damaged and lost cells, and – asexual reproduction. © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 8.10A Figure 8.10B MEIOSIS AND CROSSING OVER © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 8.18_s5 Human chromosomes Centromere Sister chromatids Pair of homologous chromosomes 5 Sex chromosomes 8.11 Chromosomes are matched in homologous pairs In humans, somatic cells have 46 chromosomes. (Somatic cells are all body cells except sperm & eggs) Females have – 22 pairs of autosomes and X X Males have – 22 pairs of autosomes and X Y Human chromosomes: 22 pairs of chromosomes are called autosomes. X and Y are called sex chromosomes. (X and Y differ in size and genetic composition) © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. 8.11 Chromosomes are matched in homologous pairs Pairs of autosomes are called Homologous chromosomes Homologous chromosomes (pairs) are matched in – length, – centromere position, and – gene locations. A locus (plural, loci) is the position of a gene. Different versions of a gene (called alleles) may be found at the same locus on maternal and paternal chromosomes. © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 8.11 Pair of homologous chromosomes Locus Centromere Sister chromatids One duplicated chromosome 8.12 Gametes have a single set of chromosomes Egg cells in females and sperm cells in males are called gametes. Human gametes have 23 chromosomes. They are called haploid cells because they have a single set of chromosomes. All other body cells in humans have 46 chromosomes and are called diploid cells. These somatic cells have two sets of chromosomes, one inherited from each parent. © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. 8.12 Gametes have a single set of chromosomes Meiosis is a process that converts diploid (2n) nuclei to haploid (n) nuclei. Meiosis occurs in the sex organs, producing gametes—sperm and eggs. Fertilization is the union of sperm and egg. The zygote has a diploid chromosome number, one set from each parent. © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 8.12A Haploid gametes (n 23) n Egg cell n Sperm cell Meiosis Ovary Fertilization Testis Diploid zygote (2n 46) 2n Key Multicellular diploid adults (2n 46) Mitosis Haploid stage (n) Diploid stage (2n) 8.12 Gametes have a single set of chromosomes All sexual life cycles include an alternation between – a diploid stage and – a haploid stage. Producing haploid gametes prevents the chromosome number from doubling in every generation. © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. 8.13 Meiosis reduces the chromosome number from diploid to haploid Meiosis is a type of cell division that produces haploid gametes in diploid organisms. Meiosis (and mitosis) are preceded by the duplication of chromosomes. However, meiosis is followed by two consecutive cell divisions. Because in meiosis, one duplication of chromosomes is followed by two divisions, each of the four daughter cells produced has a haploid set of chromosomes. © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 8.12B How meiosis halves chromosome number MEIOSIS I INTERPHASE MEIOSIS II Sister chromatids 2 1 A pair of homologous chromosomes in a diploid parent cell A pair of duplicated homologous chromosomes 3 8.13 Meiosis reduces the chromosome number from diploid to haploid – Like mitosis, meiosis is preceded by interphase – Chromosomes duplicate during the S phase – Unlike mitosis, meiosis has two divisions – During meiosis I, homologous chromosomes separate – The chromosome number is reduced by half – During meiosis II, sister chromatids separate – The chromosome number remains the same Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc. Phases in Meiosis Meiosis I – Prophase I : Synapsis, Chiasma formation & Crossing over – Metaphase I – Anaphase I: Homologous chromosomes segregate (tetrad to dyad) – Telophase I Meiosis II – Prophase II – Metaphase II – Anaphase II : Sister chromatids separate (dyad to monad) – Telophase II 8.13 Meiosis reduces the chromosome number from diploid to haploid Meiosis I – Prophase I – Chromosomes coil and become compact. – Homologous chromosomes come together as pairs by synapsis. – Each pair, with four chromatids, is called a tetrad. – Nonsister chromatids exchange genetic material by crossing over. © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. 8.13 Meiosis reduces the chromosome number from diploid to haploid Meiosis I – Prophase I – Applying Your Knowledge Human cells have 46 chromosomes. At the end of prophase I – How many chromosomes are present in one cell? – How many chromatids are present in one cell? © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 8.13_left MEIOSIS I: Homologous chromosomes separate INTERPHASE: Chromosomes duplicate Centrosomes (with centriole pairs) Prophase I Metaphase I Sites of crossing over Spindle microtubules attached to a kinetochore Centrioles Anaphase I Sister chromatids remain attached Spindle Tetrad Nuclear envelope Chromatin Sister chromatids Fragments of the nuclear envelope Centromere (with a kinetochore) Metaphase plate Homologous chromosomes separate Figure 8.13_1 MEIOSIS I INTERPHASE: Chromosomes duplicate Centrosomes (with centriole pairs) Prophase I Sites of crossing over Centrioles Spindle Tetrad Nuclear envelope Chromatin Sister chromatids Fragments of the nuclear envelope Figure 8.13_2 MEIOSIS I Metaphase I Spindle microtubules attached to a kinetochore Centromere (with a kinetochore) Anaphase I Sister chromatids remain attached Metaphase plate Homologous chromosomes separate 8.13 Meiosis reduces the chromosome number from diploid to haploid Meiosis I – Metaphase I – Tetrads align at the cell equator. Meiosis I – Anaphase I – Homologous pairs separate and move toward opposite poles of the cell. – Applying Your Knowledge Human cells have 46 chromosomes. At the end of Metaphase I – How many chromosomes are present in one cell? – How many chromatids are present in one cell? © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. 8.13 Meiosis reduces the chromosome number from diploid to haploid Meiosis I – Telophase I – Duplicated chromosomes have reached the poles. – A nuclear envelope re-forms around chromosomes in some species. – Each nucleus has the haploid number of chromosomes. – Applying Your Knowledge After telophase I and cytokinesis – How many chromosomes are present in one human cell? – How many chromatids are present in one human cell? © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. 8.13 Meiosis reduces the chromosome number from diploid to haploid Meiosis II follows meiosis I without chromosome duplication. Each of the two haploid products enters meiosis II. Meiosis II – Prophase II – Chromosomes coil and become compact (if uncoiled after telophase I). – Nuclear envelope, if re-formed, breaks up again. © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 8.13_right MEIOSIS II: Sister chromatids separate Telophase I and Cytokinesis Prophase II Metaphase II Anaphase II Telophase II and Cytokinesis Cleavage furrow Sister chromatids separate Haploid daughter cells forming Figure 8.13_3 Telophase I and Cytokinesis Cleavage furrow Figure 8.13_4 MEIOSIS II: Sister chromatids separate Prophase II Metaphase II Anaphase II Sister chromatids separate Telophase II and Cytokinesis Haploid daughter cells forming Figure 8.13_5 Two lily cells undergo meiosis II 8.13 Meiosis reduces the chromosome number from diploid to haploid Meiosis II – Metaphase II – Duplicated chromosomes align at the cell equator. Meiosis II – Anaphase II – Sister chromatids separate and – chromosomes move toward opposite poles. © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. 8.13 Meiosis reduces the chromosome number from diploid to haploid Meiosis II – Telophase II – Chromosomes have reached the poles of the cell. – A nuclear envelope forms around each set of chromosomes. – With cytokinesis, four haploid cells are produced. – Applying Your Knowledge After telophase II and cytokinesis – How many chromosomes are present in one human cell? – How many chromatids are present in one human cell? © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. 8.14 Mitosis and meiosis have important similarities and differences Mitosis and meiosis both – begin with diploid parent cells that – have chromosomes duplicated during the previous interphase. However the end products differ. – Mitosis: two genetically identical cells, with the same chromosome number as the original cell – Meiosis: four genetically different cells, with half the chromosome number of the original cell – . © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. 8.15 Mitosis and meiosis have important similarities and differences – Which characteristics are unique to meiosis? – Two divisions of chromosomes – Pairing of homologous chromosomes – Exchange of genetic material by crossing over Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 8.14 MEIOSIS I MITOSIS Parent cell (before chromosome duplication) Prophase Duplicated chromosome (two sister chromatids) Chromosome duplication Site of crossing over Prophase I Tetrad formed by synapsis of homologous chromosomes Chromosome duplication 2n 4 Metaphase I Metaphase Chromosomes align at the metaphase plate Tetrads (homologous pairs) align at the metaphase plate Anaphase I Telophase I Anaphase Telophase Homologous chromosomes separate during anaphase I; sister chromatids remain together Sister chromatids separate during anaphase Daughter cells of meiosis I MEIOSIS II 2n 2n Daughter cells of mitosis No further chromosomal duplication; sister chromatids separate during anaphase II n n n n Daughter cells of meiosis II Haploid n2 Figure 8.14_1 MEIOSIS I MITOSIS Prophase Parent cell (before chromosome duplication) Chromosome duplication Prophase I Site of crossing over Chromosome duplication 2n 4 Metaphase Tetrad Metaphase I Chromosomes align at the metaphase plate Tetrads (homologous pairs) align at the metaphase plate Figure 8.14_2 MITOSIS Metaphase Chromosomes align at the metaphase plate Anaphase Telophase Sister chromatids separate during anaphase 2n 2n Daughter cells of mitosis Figure 8.14_3 MEIOSIS I Metaphase I Tetrads (homologous pairs) align at the metaphase plate Anaphase I Telophase I Homologous chromosomes separate during anaphase I; sister chromatids remain together Daughter cells of meiosis I MEIOSIS II No further chromosomal duplication; sister chromatids separate during anaphase II n n n n Daughter cells of meiosis II Haploid n2 Figure 8.UN03 Mitosis Number of chromosomal duplications Number of cell divisions Number of daughter cells produced Number of chromosomes in the daughter cells How the chromosomes line up during metaphase Genetic relationship of the daughter cells to the parent cell Functions performed in the human body Meiosis 8.15 Independent orientation of chromosomes in meiosis and random fertilization lead to varied offspring Genetic variation in gametes results from 1. Genetic Recombination 2. Independent orientation at metaphase I 3. Random fertilization © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. 8.15 Independent orientation of chromosomes in meiosis and random fertilization lead to varied offspring Genetic Recombination Results from crossing over More in 8.17 © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. 8.15 Independent orientation of chromosomes in meiosis and random fertilization lead to varied offspring 2. Independent orientation at metaphase I – Each pair of chromosomes independently aligns at the cell equator. – There is an equal probability of the maternal or paternal chromosome facing a given pole. – The number of combinations for chromosomes packaged into gametes is 2n where n = haploid number of chromosomes. – How many chromosome combinations can humans produce? © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 8.15_s1 Possibility A Possibility B Two equally probable arrangements of chromosomes at metaphase I Figure 8.15_s2 Possibility A Possibility B Two equally probable arrangements of chromosomes at metaphase I Metaphase II Figure 8.15_s3 Possibility A Possibility B Two equally probable arrangements of chromosomes at metaphase I Metaphase II Gametes Combination 1 Combination 2 Combination 3 Combination 4 8.15 Independent orientation of chromosomes in meiosis and random fertilization lead to varied offspring 3. Random fertilization - The combination of each unique sperm with each unique egg increases genetic variability – How many possibilities are there when a unique human egg fertilize with a unique sperm? © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. 8.16 Homologous chromosomes may carry different versions of genes Separation of homologous chromosomes during meiosis can lead to genetic differences between gametes. – Homologous chromosomes may have different versions of a gene at the same locus. – One version was inherited from the maternal parent and the other came from the paternal parent. – Since homologues move to opposite poles during anaphase I, gametes will receive either the maternal or paternal version of the gene. © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 8.16Q Sister chromatids Sister chromatids Pair of homologous chromosomes Figure 8.16 Differing genetic information (coat color and eye color) on homologous chromosomes Coat-color genes Eye-color genes Brown C Black E Meiosis c White e Pink Tetrad in parent cell (homologous pair of duplicated chromosomes) C E C E c e c e Chromosomes of the four gametes Brown coat (C); black eyes (E) White coat (c); pink eyes (e) 8.17 Crossing over further increases genetic variability Genetic recombination is the production of new combinations of genes due to crossing over. Crossing over is an exchange of corresponding segments between separate (nonsister) chromatids on homologous chromosomes. – Nonsister chromatids join at a chiasma (plural, chiasmata), the site of attachment and crossing over. – Corresponding amounts of genetic material are exchanged between maternal and paternal (nonsister) chromatids. © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 8.17B_1 C E c e 1 Breakage of homologous chromatids C E c e 2 C Tetrad (pair of homologous chromosomes in synapsis) Joining of homologous chromatids E Chiasma c e Figure 8.17B_2 C E Chiasma c e 3 Separation of homologous chromosomes at anaphase I C E C e c E c e Figure 8.17B_3 C E C c e c e E 4 Separation of chromatids at anaphase II and completion of meiosis C E C e c E c e Parental type of chromosome Recombinant chromosome Recombinant chromosome Parental type of chromosome Gametes of four genetic types ALTERATIONS OF CHROMOSOME NUMBER AND STRUCTURE © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. 8.18 A karyotype is a photographic inventory of an individual’s chromosomes A karyotype is an ordered display of magnified images of an individual’s chromosomes arranged in pairs. Karyotypes – are often produced from dividing cells arrested at metaphase of mitosis and – allow for the observation of – homologous chromosome pairs, – chromosome number, and – chromosome structure. © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 8.18_s3 Packed red and white blood cells Blood culture Hypotonic solution Centrifuge 2 Fixative Stain White blood cells 3 Fluid 1 Figure 8.18_s4 4 Figure 8.18_s5 Centromere Sister chromatids Pair of homologous chromosomes 5 Sex chromosomes 8.19 CONNECTION: An extra copy of chromosome 21 causes Down syndrome Trisomy 21 – involves the inheritance of three copies of chromosome 21 and – is the most common human chromosome abnormality. © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. 8.19 CONNECTION: An extra copy of chromosome 21 causes Down syndrome Trisomy 21, called Down syndrome, produces a characteristic set of symptoms, which include: – mental retardation, – characteristic facial features, – short stature, – heart defects, – susceptibility to respiratory infections, leukemia, and Alzheimer’s disease, and – shortened life span. The incidence increases with the age of the mother. © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 8.19A Trisomy 21 Figure 8.19B Infants with Down syndrome (per 1,000 births) 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 20 25 30 35 40 Age of mother 45 50 8.20 Accidents during meiosis can alter chromosome number Nondisjunction is the failure of chromosomes or chromatids to separate normally during meiosis. This can happen during – meiosis I, if both members of a homologous pair go to one pole or – meiosis II if both sister chromatids go to one pole. Fertilization after nondisjunction yields zygotes with altered numbers of chromosomes. © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 8.20A_s3 MEIOSIS I Nondisjunction MEIOSIS II Normal meiosis II Gametes Number of chromosomes n1 n1 n1 Abnormal gametes n1 Figure 8.20B_s3 MEIOSIS I Normal meiosis I MEIOSIS II Nondisjunction n1 n1 Abnormal gametes n n Normal gametes 8.21 CONNECTION: Abnormal numbers of sex chromosomes do not usually affect survival Sex chromosome abnormalities tend to be less severe, perhaps because of – the small size of the Y chromosome or – X-chromosome inactivation. © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. 8.21 CONNECTION: Abnormal numbers of sex chromosomes do not usually affect survival The following table lists the most common human sex chromosome abnormalities. In general, – a single Y chromosome is enough to produce “maleness,” even in combination with several X chromosomes, and – the absence of a Y chromosome yields “femaleness.” © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Table 8.21 Kleinfelter Syndrome 47, XXY Turner Syndrome 45, X Two kinds of chromosomal aberrations Aberrations in chromosome number Trisomy 21 XXY, XYY, XXX, X Aberrations in chromosome structure Deletions Duplications Inverstions Translocations © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. 8.23 CONNECTION: Alterations of chromosome structure can cause birth defects and cancer Chromosome breakage can lead to rearrangements that can produce – genetic disorders or, – if changes occur in somatic cells, cancer. © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. 8.23 CONNECTION: Alterations of chromosome structure can cause birth defects and cancer These rearrangements may include – a deletion, the loss of a chromosome segment, – a duplication, the repeat of a chromosome segment, – an inversion, the reversal of a chromosome segment, or – a translocation, the attachment of a segment to a nonhomologous chromosome that can be reciprocal. © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 8.23A_1 Deletion Duplication Homologous chromosomes Figure 8.23A_2 Inversion Reciprocal translocation Nonhomologous chromosomes Figure 8.23B The translocation associated with chronic myelogenous leukemia Chromosome 9 Chromosome 22 Reciprocal translocation Activated cancer-causing gene “Philadelphia chromosome” 8.23 CONNECTION: Alterations of chromosome structure can cause birth defects and cancer Chronic myelogenous leukemia (CML) – is one of the most common leukemias, – Cancer of white blood cells (leukocytes), and – Results from part of chromosome 22 switching places with a small fragment from a tip of chromosome 9. – The mutated protein turns normal white blood cells to divide repeatedly, causing leukemia. – Drug that blocks the action of the abnormal protein is developed. – This drug (Gleevac) controls the protein’s activity that WBCs are no longer produced in an uncontrolled fashion © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.