Download Adaptation models of mountain glacier tourism to climate change: a

http://www.scar.ac.cn
Sciences in Cold and Arid Regions
2012, 4(5): 0401–0407
DOI: 10.3724/SP.J.1226.2012.00401
Adaptation models of mountain glacier tourism to climate
change: a case study of Mt. Yulong Snow scenic area
ShiJin Wang 1*, ShiTai Jiao 2
1. State Key Laboratory of Cryospheric Sciences, Cold and Arid Regions Environmental and Engineering Research Institute,
Chinese Academy of Sciences, Lanzhou, Gansu 730000, China
2. Department of Economics and Tourism Management, Baise University, Baise, Guangxi 533000, China
*Correspondence to: Dr. ShiJin Wang, Post doctor of Cold and Arid Regions Environmental and Engineering Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Sciences. No. 320, West Donggang Road, Lanzhou, Gansu 730000, China. Tel: +86-931-4967339;
FAX: +86-931-4967339; Email: [email protected]
Received: February 12, 2012
Accepted: July 3, 2012
ABSTRACT
Mountain glaciers have an obvious location advantage and tourist market condition over polar and high latitude glaciers. Due to
the enormous economic benefit and heritage value, some mountain glaciers will always receive higher attention from commercial
media, government departments and mountain tourists in China and abroad. At present, more than 100 glaciers have been developed successfully as famous tourist destinations all over the world. However, global climate change seriously affects mountain
glaciers and its surrounding environment. According to the current accelerated retreat trend, natural and cultural landscapes of
some glaciers will be weakened, even disappear in the future. Climate change will also inevitably affect mountain ecosystems, and
tourism routes under ice and glacier experience activities in these ecosystems. Simultaneously, the disappearance of mountain
glaciers will also lead to a clear reduction of tourism and local economic benefits. Based on these reasons, this paper took Mt.
Yulong Snow scenic area as an example and analyzed the retreat trend of a typical glacier. We then put forward some scientific
and rational response mechanisms and adaptation models based on climate change in order to help future sustainable development
of mountain glacier tourism.
Keywords: climate change; mountain glacier tourism; adaptation models
1. Introduction
Glacier tourism, as natural or mountain tourism, is an activity or event whereby glaciers and ancient glacier relics
serve as main attractions, such as glacier sightseeing by cable car, aircraft and snowmobile, glacier photographing,
skiing, hiking, ice climbing, and exploration and surveying
teams for scientific research and environmental education
(Wang et al., 2010). Glacier tourism originated from the
early pilgrimage, mountaineering and expedition tourism
activities in Switzerland and Norway in the early 1800s
(Zumbühl and Iken, 1981), developed as mass tourism in the
1900s, subsequently became universally popular in glacier
experience tourism. At present, there is extensive literature
on glacier geology and geography (Ormiston and Manning,
1998; Vaske et al., 2000), but relatively little involving glacier tourism and only limited to mountain tourism and
UNESCO sites (Alison and Peter, 1994; Agenda, 1999;
Sanjay, 2000; Ben et al., 2008). However, today’s glacier
tourism is a thriving business, and has been consciously
developed and run worldwide.
Historically, mountain glacier areas attracted only pilgrims, ascetics, and naturalists due to the inconvenience of
traffic conditions and the restriction of tourist markets. In
recent years, mountaineers, trekkers and cultural tourists
have been keen to visit mountain glaciers all over the world.
Additionally, climate change will also lead to a gradual shift
of tourist destinations towards higher latitudes and altitudes.
Present day glacier tourism, as an excellent business attraction, has been successfully developed and operated, and
402
ShiJin Wang et al., 2012 / Sciences in Cold and Arid Regions, 4(5): 0401–0407
provides valuable business and economic benefits worldwide. At present, there are more than 100 well-known
mountain glacier resorts in the world as natural attractions,
some of which have been listed as part of World Heritage
Sites and World Biosphere Reserves because of unique and
spectacular glacial landscapes and the educational significance about sensitivity to climate change (Wang and Zhao,
2011) (Table 1). Other famous scenic areas as the main
attraction of glaciers include Fjords National Park in Alaska, USA; Bernardo O’Higgins National Park, Torres del
Paine National Park and Laguna San Rafael National Park,
Chile; Jostedalsbreen in Sogn og Fjordane, Norway, Hohe
Tauern National Park, Austria; Écrins and Vanoise National Parks in the French Alps; Laponian Area in Laponia,
Sweden; Vatnajökull National Park, Iceland; Gran Paradiso
National Park, Italy; Langtang National Park, Nepal;
Mount Kilimanjaro National Park, Tanzania, Rwenzori
Mountains National Park, Ugandan; Sourceland of Three
Great Rivers, Tuomuer, Bogda Peak, West Tianshan, Qilian Mountains, Gonggashan, Everest National Nature
Reserves and Mt. Yulong Snow Glacier Geological Park,
China.
Table 1 Worldwide, well-known World Heritage glaciers
Regional name
Los Glaciares National Park
Huascarán National Park
Jostedal Glacier National Park
Ilulissat Icefjord
Vatnajökull National Park
Jungfrau-Aletsch-Bietschhorn
Albula/Bernina cultural landscape
Dolomites
Pyrenees-Mont Perdu
Location
Santa Cruz, Argentina
Ancash, Peru
Sogn og Fjordane, Norway
Western, Greenland
South-east, Iceland
Valais, Switzerland
Graubuenden, Switzerland
Belluno, Italy
Aragon Region, Spain
Glacier Park 1
USA, Canada
Waterton Glacier International Peace
Park
Olympic National Park
Canadian Rocky Mountain National
Parks 2
Te Wahipounamu
Nanda Devi National Park
Sagarmatha National Park
Central Karakoram National Park
Year
1981
1985
2005
2004
2004
2001
2008
2009
1997
1979, 1994,
1997
Glacier name
Perito Moreno and Upsala glaciers
Pastoruri Glacier
Jostedal Glacier
Sermeq Kujalleq Glacier
Vatnajökull glacier
Aletsch and Fiescher glaciers
Morteratsch Glacier
Marmolada Glacier
Monte Perdido Glacier
Malaspina and Grand Pacific glaciers
USA, Canada
1995
Grinnell Glacier
Washington, USA
1981
Hubert Glacier
Alberta, Canada
1984
Athabasca Glacier
South Island, New Zealand
Uttarakhand, India
Khumbu region, Nepal
Gilgit-Baltistan, Pakistan
Pamir National Park
Gorno-Badakhshan, Tajikistan
Kenya National Park
Three parallel rivers of Yunnan
Nanyoki, Kenya
Yunnan, China
1990
1988
1979
1982
Nominated in
2008
1997
2003
Fox and Franz Josef glaciers
Pindari Glacier
Khumbu and Ngozumba glaciers
Baltoro Glacier
Fedchenko Glacier
Lewis Glacier
Mingyong Glacier
Note: 1. Glacier Park consists of Kluane, Wrangell-St Elias, Glacier Bay and Tatshenshini-Alsek National Parks; 2. Canadian Rocky
Mountain Parks include Jasper, Banff, Kootenay, Yoho, as well as the Mount Robson National Park.
However, global warming has steadily increased since
1910, where global annual mean temperature has increased
by 0.74 °C from 1906 to 2005, and will likely increase by
1.1–6.4 °C in 2100. Global warming during the last decades
has been a "hot" phenomenon and glaciers have been melting in recent years (IPCC, 2007). Though the reaction of a
glacier to climatic change involves a complex chain of processes (Nye, 1960; Meier, 1984), air temperature plays a
predominant role. "The warming of the climate system is
unequivocal", the overall worldwide shrinking and thinning
of glaciers and ice caps since the end of The Little Ice Age in
1850 is well correlated with an increase in global mean air
temperature of about 0.75 °C since the mid-19th century
(Dyurgerov, 2005). Under present climate change scenarios,
the ongoing trend of global and rapid, if not accelerating,
glacier shrinkage on a century time scale is of non-periodic
nature and may lead to the deglaciation of large parts of
many alpine ranges in the coming decades (Zemp et al.,
2006; Nesje et al., 2008). The retreat of mountain glaciers is
more obvious and serious, where material loss is significantly higher than high-latitude and polar glaciers (Kaser et
al., 2004). The current accelerated melting and retreat of
mountain glaciers will not only led to an unprecedented decline and loss of mountain aesthetic climbing routes and the
environment (Mueller and Vincent, 2003; Cruikshank, 2005;
Vergara et al., 2007; Lewis et al., 2009), but will also cause a
ShiJin Wang et al., 2012 / Sciences in Cold and Arid Regions, 4(5): 0401–0407
reduction of economic benefits in many tourist destinations
with glacial features (Elsasser and Bürki, 2002; Richardson
and Loomis, 2003; Scott et al., 2007). This is undoubtedly a
heavy economic impact on mountain regions which relies on
glacier and snow tourism as the main source of income.
At present, how to rationally develop mountain glacier
resources, coordinate glacier protection and tourism development, and ensure the sustainable development of mountain tourism have become a major environmental and socio-economic issue considered by tourism developers, researchers, managers, tourists, local government, NGOs and
local residents. Based on these reasons, this article takes Mt.
Yulong Snow scenic area as a test case to analyze its response to local climate change, and try to put forward some
adaptive models to promote sustainable development of
mountain glaciers.
2. Study area
Mt. Yulong Snow scenic area (27°10′–27°40′N,
100°9′–100°20′E), with a highest peak "satseto" of 5,596 m
a.s.l., is located in the southeastern edge of the Tibetan Plateau, and is the southernmost glacierized area of mainland
Eurasia, with 15 typical monsoonal temperate-glaciers (Pang
403
et al., 2007). Mt. Yulong Snow scenic area consists of Glacier Park, Ganhaizi, Yunshanping, Maoniuping, Ganheba,
Baishui River, and Sancha River attractions (Figure 1). In
Galcier Park, Baishui Glacier No. 1 (BSG1) is the largest
glacier in the scenic area, with an area of 1.52 km2, and
length of 2.7 km (Pu, 1994), and is known as the "natural
glacier museum" where most attributes of the world’s
mountain glaciers of mid and low latitudes are concentrated.
Due to breathtaking landscapes of glacier and subtropical
mountain spectacles (e.g., high mountains, deep valleys,
meadows, shrubs, forest, and glaciers), BSG1 and surrounding areas was classified as a National Glacier Geological Park by the Ministry of Land and Resources in 2009.
The scenic area has a 2.9 km tourism cableway leading to
Glacier Park. Owing to convenient traffic conditions and
excellent service facilities, tourists can easily enjoy and experience close-up scenery of glacier landscapes without disturbing the fragile ecological environment. According to the
survey of Mt. Yulong Snow scenic area, 80% of tourists are
able to enjoy and view glacier and snow landscapes in Glacier
Park. The number of tourist arriving in Mt. Yulong Snow scenic area has risen from 0.64 million in 1995 to 1.90 million in
2008, increasing by 196.88%. Today, tourism numbers have
greatly exceeded their host populations in one year.
Figure 1 Location of Mt. Yulong Snow and scenic spots
3. Impact of climate change to glacier landscapes
In the context of global warming, regional warming is
very significant. Annual mean air temperature, as calculated
from data supplied by the Lijiang Meteorological Station at
the foot of Mt. Yulong Snow, varies from 11.9 °C to 14.2 °C
for the past 38 years (1972–2009). A linear trend shows that
the annual mean air temperature increased significantly by
0.23 °C/decade for the period of 1972–2009, statistically significant at 0.01 level (Figure 2). Regional warming trend is
obviously lower than 0.25–0.50 °C/decade of national level in
the past 25 years (Zuo et al., 2004), while higher than
ShiJin Wang et al., 2012 / Sciences in Cold and Arid Regions, 4(5): 0401–0407
404
0.173 °C/decade for the Sichuan Province and 0.15 °C/decade
in Hengduanshan for the period of 1960–2009 (Wang, 2012).
Recent climate change has caused ubiquitous reduction
of glacier area on Mt. Yulong Snow. In 1957, all 19 glacier
(with an area of 11.61 km2) termini observed on Mt. Yulong
Snow were retreating, and by 2008 four had disappeared,
with a glacier area decrease of 26.78% (about 3.11 km2).
Photographs in Figure 3 and measured data shows that the
retreat rate of BSG1 reached to 14.62 m/yr in 1982–2008,
the altitude of its front raised by 213.3 m, the annual average
elevation was 7.9 m/yr in the last 28 years, and the retreat
speed obviously increased in recent years (Wang et al.,
2010). More importantly, the altitude of its front rose annually by 9.5 m in 1998–2008, much higher than 3.2 m in
1957–1999 (Li et al., 2009). Rapid melting of BSG1 will
threaten glacier landscape form and quality, and even endanger economic development in this mountainous region.
Therefore, we should provide future response mechanisms
in relation to regional climate change.
Figure 2 Inter-annual variation of air temperature in Lijiang
City during 1972–2009
Figure 3 Front variation of Baishui Glacier No. 1 during 1982–2008 (white line as BSG1 front, black line as the
reference line). The photos taken in 1982, 1997 and 2008 were respectively provided by
GuoCai Zhu, XiTao Zhao and ShiJin Wang.
4. Adaptation models to climate change
4.1. Development ideas
Glaciers and snow-peaks are the most monopolistic
tourist resources of Mt. Yulong Snow scenic area, but are
also influential and interdependent with glacier relics, canyons, forest, meadows, natural environment, biodiversity
and cultural tourism resources of Lijiang Old Town (important world cultural heritage site) (Wang et al., 2008). At
the same time, glacier attraction is not determined only by
glacier tourism resources but often rely on the combination
characteristics of glaciers and surrounding landscapes. In
view of these factors, we need to change the development
model from a single glacier tourism model to a group pattern model that includes glaciers, snow-capped mountains,
forests, meadows, lakes, canyons and national culture
landscapes. Through group-development models, glacier
tourism types and contents will expand, tourism industry
chains will be extend in mountainous regions, the brand
value of glacier tourism products will be enhanced in order
to meet a variety of tourists’ consumption demands, and
mountain glacier resources will adapt to the impact of cli-
mate change.
Taking the aforementioned factors into account, the ideas of glacier tourism sustainable development in Mt. Yulong
Snow should focus on the following points: (1) rely on existing glacier resources to enhance the quality of glacier
sightseeing; (2) stimulate the rapid development of climate-weather and vegetation tourism resources through
camping and leisure projects; (3) promote the use efficiency of glacier relic tourism resources through recreation,
expedition science and camping items; (4) stimulate the
integration development of glacier and valley tourism by
trekking, adventure and experience projects around glacier
resources; (5) increase the contents of glacier tourism by
products climate change and popular science education on
geological museum; (6) lead the rapid development of
glacier and mountain culture tourism through cultural
product development.
4.2. Group-development models
4.2.1 Glacier and climate-weather tourism
Climate-weather tourism resources refer to meteorolog-
ShiJin Wang et al., 2012 / Sciences in Cold and Arid Regions, 4(5): 0401–0407
ical landscapes, weather phenomenon and their combination
with cryosphere, lithosphere, hydrosphere, and biosphere
tourism resources in different regions. These resources include clouds, mists, moonlight, sunrise, snow, and glaciers,
which constitute the important attractions in Mt. Yulong
Snow scenic area. Snow and glacier landscapes are the most
405
important climate resources, and their shapes change with
the seasons. More importantly, Mt. Yulong Snow enjoys a
prominent and complete vertical mountain climate belt with
an elevation gradient of warm, warm and cool, and cold
temperatures from the valley to the top of the mountains
(Table 2).
Table 2 Climate-weather tourism resource types in glacier areas of Mt. Yulong Snow
Elements
Landscape
Remark
Wind, rain,
overcast, sunshine
Meteorology
The evening rays of sunshine on snow-capped mountain create a rainbow of colors, producing a
colorful glow on glaciers and snow.
Glaciers
Climate
Cloud and
mist
Evergreen
Low clouds
Cloud formations
Less dense mists
Ice, snow,
frost, dew
Snow cover
Sun, moon,
and stars
Morning scenery
Evening scenery
Night scenery
Glaciers are a multi-year climate product.
Evergreen landscapes, snow and glaciers constitute the scenic essense of green landscapes and
snowy peaks in the subtropics of China.
In June, ribbon-like white clouds encircle snow-capped mountains, where glaciers seem to disappear directly into the sea of clouds.
Some clouds produce a variety of forms such as a dragon that float above the snowy peaks.
In winter and spring, a variety of unique mists blanket the glacier.
Sunlight shining down on a snow covered mountain creates flickering phenomena creating a
pleasant sensation to the viewer.
Early morning sunshine on snowy mountains and glacier landscapes create a variety of colors.
Snow-capped mountains are spectacular during sunset.
Snow-capped mountains and moonlight complement each other.
In view of limited utilization of climate-weather tourism
resources, Mt. Yulong Snow scenic area should focus on
camping and leisure items in Maoniuping and Yunshanping
in order to supplement and improve existing tourism products. At the same time, the scenic area should also implement temporary camping projects in Zhupengping and
Chuncaoping near BGS1 and build simple temporary
camping locations in Ganheba and Sanchahe (Figure 1).
Through a combination of camping, leisure projects and
glacier sightseeing, Mt. Yulong Snow scenic area can take
full advantage of climate-weather tourism resources (e.g.,
sunrise, clouds, evening rays, snow, glacier landscapes) so as
to provide increased landscape products with higher ornamental value to a variety of tourists. It should be noted that
generated garbage, waste water, and solid waste from
camping activities must be collected and processed, putting
an end to environmental pollution.
zontal outwash deposit and terminal moraine, creating open
terrain conditions and beautiful natural landscapes. In addition, these landscapes spread out to other scenic areas close
to tourist service centers which are relatively accessible.
Based on the aforementioned factors, Mt. Yulong Snow
scenic area should make full use of modern galcier landscapes in Glacier Park, ancient glacier relic landscapes in
Ganheba, and other important attractions, such as forest
vegetation, alpine flora, and alpine ice-worn cone karst.
Thus, the scenic area can carry out proper hiking, adventure,
fitness, scientific research, popular science, summer (winter)
camping, and other special tourism projects. This will establish Mt. Yulong Snow as a well-known natural leisure resort
with economic, environmental, low-carbon, and vacation
benefits. At the same time, the scenic area should also actively develop Mt. Yulong Snow as a base for mountain
glaciology, geology, ecology, tourism practice and popular
science in China.
4.2.2 Glacier and ancient glacier relic tourism
4.2.3 Glacier and glacier geological museum tourism
In Glacier Park, there are diverse glacier landscapes,
such as hanging, cirques, valley, cirques-hanging, and
cirques-valley glaciers, and a variety of glacier relic types
such as "U" and "V" shaped valleys, hanging valley, edge
ridge, horn, cirque, lateral moraine, terminal moraine, drumlin, roche moutonnee, glacier pavement, and boulders, concentrated in Ganheba. Ganheba belongs to the Alpine
U-shaped valley, where the valley floor distributes a hori-
The rapid melting of glaciers will result in the reduction
of glacier tourism resources and a decrease in landscape
quality. However, a glacial geology museum is an important
reserve resource for sustainable glacier tourism. In fact,
glacier museums have been developed and run successfully
in Switzerland and Norway. It is very important and significant to set up glacier museums and a popular science educa-
406
ShiJin Wang et al., 2012 / Sciences in Cold and Arid Regions, 4(5): 0401–0407
tion base in the tourist service center by combining glacier
tourism, popular science and geographical practices with
glaciers, geology, forest vegetation, ecology, and environmental education functions. Glacier tourists and researchers
will learn more about correlative formations and knowledge
of glacier form and change mechanism, formation and characteristics of ancient glacier relics and landforms, the relationship among glaciers, climate and runoff changes, the
response of glaciers to global climate change, and the role of
glacier tourism for regional economic and social development. At the same time, the glacier museum and popular
science education can display glacier landscapes, glacier
information and protection, and also raise tourists’ awareness of ecotourism, low-carbon tourism and environment
protection. This can be accomplished by use of pictures,
samples of glaciers, vegetation, and rocks, three-dimensional
virtual scenery, and multi-media, glacier forums, and consultation. This will provide a new paradigm or ideas for the
sustainable development of glacier tourism.
4.2.4 Glacier and alpine vegetation tourism
Glacier scenery, snowscape, and alpine vegetation are
typical landscape combinations coexisting on Mt. Yulong
Snow. Forest landscape of Yunshanping, grassland landscape of Maoniuping, and glacier landscape of Glacier Park
are the main attractions of Mt. Yulong Snow scenic area,
indicating potential and direction of glacier tourism group
development with alpine vegetation resources. On Mt.
Yulong Snow, typical high-altitude climate and excellent soil
conditions provide healthy alpine vegetation and environment. For example, from 1,800 m above sea level to snow
covered mountain areas at 4,500 m, Mt. Yulong Snow enjoys multiple climates ranging from subtropical, temperate
to frigid zones. Evergreen broadleaf forest exists at
2,400–2,900 m; at 2,700–3,200 m there exists a mixed forest
of conifers and broadleaf; coniferous trees are at
3,100–4,200 m; shrubs are located at 3,700–4,300 m; alpine
plants can be found at 4,300–5,000 m; and glaciers above
5,000 m lack plant life. In the 20 primitive forests on the
mountain, there are over 20 rare and endangered species of
plants under state protection, such as Chinese hemlock and
Yunan torreya, and 145 genera and 3,200 species of seed
plants (alpine Rhododendron has more than 80 species)
(Wang, 2002). However, the integrated development of alpine vegetation and glacier tourism resources needs to be
developed.
In view of the aforementioned factors, the scenic area
should first consider adding viewing platforms and plank
roads around shrubs (e.g., Rhododendrons) and woodlands
near the front of glaciers, and provide trails or cableways
connected to these platforms and roads. Thus, tourist will not
only enjoy the sight of glacier landscapes at short range, but
also alpine vegetation. In addition, tourism managers can
also implement camping activities in the terminal of BSG1,
where tourist can witness the coexistence phenomenon be-
tween glaciers and diverse vegetation landscapes (e.g., beautiful Rhododendrons blanketing the snow mountain). Relying
on alpine climate tourism resources, group-development between glacier and alpine vegetation tourism are bound to extend the content and functions of mountain glacier tourism in
order to adapt to a diverse demand of tourists’ consumption.
4.2.5 Glacier and valley tourism
At the east foot of Mt. Yulong Snow is a river valley,
called Baishui River (Figure 1), fed by a melting glacier and
snow. Glaciers, glacial runoff, and river valleys form a systematic and inseparable combination landscape and are interdependent with each other. At present, Baishui River valley has not been developed. Thus, visitors can not arrive
directly at BSG1 through the valley to appreciate and experience the comprehensive landscapes of glaciers, glacial
runoff and the river valley.
However, the river valley from BSG1 to Sachahe (the
upper reaches of Baishui River) (Figure 1) is very suitable
for hiking and expedition activities in summer and autumn.
Here, tourist can not only appreciate distant glacier and forest landscapes, but also experience nature, waterfalls, paddle
boats and enjoy the clean fresh air. Taking into account these
factors, Baishui River valley should be developed actively as
a new tourism project. Certainly, the design of tourism
products should highlight the comprehensive landscape features of snow-capped mountains, glaciers, river valleys,
lakes, waterfalls, forest, and flora. At the same time, the design and building of valley tourism routes should promote
the ideas of nature, ecology, culture and safety. Through
group-development between glaciers and river valley tourism resources, scenic areas will enhance the competitiveness
of mountain tourism.
4.2.6 Glacier and culture tourism
Mountainous regions usually possess cultural heritages
based on long-term historical process. Mt. Yulong Snow is a
sacred mountain to the Naxi and other people in this area,
and is also the source of Naxi culture (important part of
world cultural heritage of Lijiang Old Town). At the same
time, Naxi, Tibetan, Yi, Pumi and Lishu people have lived
on Mt. Yulong Snow for thousands of years, and have created interesting cultures. For example, Dongba characters,
the living pictographs, the Baisha Fresco that combines features of Han and Tibetan paintings and ancient Naxi music
(parts of Lijiang Old Town), handed down from the Tang
Dynasty, have received inspiration from the sacred mountain.
On the other hand, from ancient to modern times, many
scholars are attracted to the magic of Mt. Yulong Snow and
express their sincere praises to it. A poet described it as "a
jade dragon raising head toward the heaven above and
viewing its own image in the mirroring Dianchi Lake". Another line describes Mt. Yulong Snow as piled with thousands of layers of jade and good wine unparallel in the world
ShiJin Wang et al., 2012 / Sciences in Cold and Arid Regions, 4(5): 0401–0407
(Wang, 2002).
The variety of cultural resources on Mt. Yulong Snow
has a long history and huge tourism value, so future
group-development between glacier landscapes and mountain culture tourism should involve three aspects: (1) exhibit
the poems of snow and glacier culture on Mt. Yulong Snow
by television and film so as to expand the scenic area’s reputation; (2) publish and issue cultural tourism products and
snow and glacier landscapes (collection of poems, paintings,
pictures, images, and other products), allowing tourists to
understand Mt. Yulong Snow scenic area; (3) build artificial
landscapes (e.g., stone walls, exhibition halls) with poems and
Naxi culture at the tourist service center on Mt. Yulong Snow
to exhibit their content, spatial and temporal beauty. Through
group-development of glaciers, snow and mountain culture
resources, tourist will intuitively understand glaciers and snow
landscapes and its culture history on Mt. Yulong Snow.
5. Conclusion
Adapting to the impact of climate warming on mountain
glacier tourism, Mt. Yulong Snow scenic area must focus on
group-development models that include glacier sightseeing,
hiking, exploration, camping, sports fitness, leisure, popular
science education, culture tourism and other tourism projects,
thereby reducing the pressure of glacier tourism. In the context of global warming, mountain glacier tourism will face
serious effects, such as glacial retreat. Therefore, mountain
destinations should assess in advance the impacts from
glacier retreat, enhance the quality of existing glacier sightseeing and experience projects, look for alternative tourism
products, and extend the chain of glacier tourism industry in
order to cope with the consequences of global climate
warming to mountain glaciers tourism. At the same time,
mountain destinations should implement a dominant strategy of ecotourism and low-carbon tourism, and ultimately
promote glacier tourism sustainable development by clean
energy and green consumption.
Acknowledgments:
This study was partially funded by the open fund (SKLCS
2011-04) from Stake Key Laboratory of Cryospheric Sciences and National Social Science Foundation of China
(12BJY127). The author thanks fellow colleagues for their
constructive comments of this manuscript.
REFERENCES
Agenda M, 1999. Mountains of the world: Tourism and sustainable mountain
development. Institute of Geography, University of Berne, Switzerland.
Alison G, Peter W, 1994. Managing growth in mountain tourism communities. Tourism Management, 3(15): 212–220.
Ben O, Ellen W, Brian HL, 2008. The place of glaciers in natural and cultural
landscapes. In: Darkening Peaks: Glacier Retreat, Science and Society.
University of California Press, USA.
Cruikshank J, 2005. Do Glaciers Listen? Local Knowledge, Colonial Encounters, and Social Imagination. University of British Columbia Press,
Vancouver, pp. 30–150.
Dyurgerov M, 2005. Mountain glaciers are at risk of extinction. In: Huber
407
UM, Bugmann HKM, Reasoner MA (eds.). Global Change in Mountain
Regions. Springer, Netherlands.
Elsasser H, Bürki R, 2002. Climate change as a threat to tourism in the Alps.
Climate Research, 20: 253–257.
IPCC (Intergovernment Panel on Climate Change), 2007. Climate Change
2007: Impacts, Adaptation, and Vulnerability. Summary for Policymakers Report of Working Group II of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.
Kaser G, Georges C, Juen I, Mölg T, Wagnon P, Francou B, 2004. The behavior of modern low-latitude glaciers. Past Global Changes News, 12:
15–17.
Lewis AO, Glenn T, Robert SA, Jason B, Darrell K, Gerard R, William P,
Chaolu Y, 2009. Integrated research on mountain glaciers: Current status,
priorities and future prospects. Geomorphology, 103: 158–159.
Li ZX, He YQ, Wang SJ, Jia WX, He XZ, Zhang NN, Zhu GF, Pu T, Du JK,
Xin HJ, 2009. Changes of some monsoonal temperate glaciers in Hengduan Mountains region during 1900–2007. Acta Geographica Sinica,
64(11): 1322–1323.
Meier MF, 1984. The contribution of small glaciers to sea level rise. Science,
226: 1418–1421.
Mueller DR, Vincent WR, 2003. Break-up of the largest Arctic ice shelf and
associated loss of an epishelf lake. Geophysical Research Letters, 30(20):
1–4.
Nesje A, Bakke J, Dahl SO, Lie O, Matthews JA, 2008. Norwegian mountain glaciers in the past, present and future. Global and Planetary Change,
60(1–2): 10–27.
Nye JF, 1960. The response of glaciers and ice-sheets to seasonal and climatic changes. Proceedings of the Royal Society A, 256(1287): 559–584.
Ormiston DG, Manning RE, 1998. Indicators and standards of quality for ski
resort management. Journal of Travel Research, 36(2): 35–41.
Pang HX, He YQ, Zhang NN, 2007. Accelerating glacier retreat on Yulong
Mountain, Tibetan Plateau, since the late 1990s. Journal of Glaciology,
53(181): 317–319.
Pu JC, 1994. Glacier Inventory of China: the Changjiang River Drainage
Basin. Gansu Culture Press, Lanzhou, pp. 117–129.
Richardson RB, Loomis JB, 2003. The effects of climate change on mountain tourism: a contingent behavior methodology. First International
Conference on Climate Change and Tourism, Djerba, Tunisia.
Sanjay K, 2000. Tourism in protected areas: The Nepalese Himalaya. Annals
of Tourism Research, 3(27): 661–681.
Scott D, Jones B, Konopek J, 2007. Implication of climate and environmental change for nature-based tourism in the Canadian Rocky Mountains: A
case study of Waterton Lakes National Park. Tourism Management, 28:
570–572.
Vaske JJ, Carothers P, Donnelly MP, 2000. Recreation conflict among skiers
and snow boarders. Leisure Sciences, 22(4): 297–313.
Vergara W, Deeb AM, Valencia AM, Bradley RS, Francou B, Zarzar A,
Grünwaldt A, Haeussling SM, 2007. Economic impacts of rapid glacier
retreat in the Andes. EOS Trans. American Geophysical Union, 88(25):
261–264.
Wang SJ, He YQ, He XZ, Yuan JP, 2008. Tourism resource protection and
development in a typical temperate-glacier region in China: A case study
of Mt. Yulong Snow scenic region. Journal of Yunnan Normal University
(Humanities and Social Sciences), 40(6): 38–43.
Wang SJ, He YQ, Song XD, 2010. Impacts of climate warming on Alpine
Glaciers tourism and adaptive measures. Journal of Earth Science, 21(2):
166–178.
Wang SJ, Jiao ST, Xin HJ, 2012. Spatio-temporal characteristics of temperature
and precipitation in Sichuan Province, Southwestern China in recent five
decades. Quaternary International. DOI: 10.1016/j.quaint.2012.04.030.
Wang SJ, Zhao JD, 2011. Potential evaluation and spatial development
strategies of glacier tourism in China. Geographical Research, 30(8):
1528–1542.
Wang Y, 2002. Travel Yulong Snow Mountain. China Travel and Tourism
Press, Beijing.
Zemp M, Haeberli W, Hoelzle M, Paul F, 2006. Alpine glaciers to disappear
within decades? Geophysical Research Letters, 33: L13504. DOI:
10.1029/2006GL026319.
Zumbühl H, Iken A, 1981. Glacier in the Bernese Alps and their exploration.
Berner Illustrated Encyclopedia. Nature, 1: 54–61.
Zuo HC, Lu SH, Hu YQ, 2004. Variations trend of yearly mean air temperature and precipitation in China in the last 50 years. Plateau Meteorology,
2: 238–244.