Download Uses of the –ing form Relative clauses: restrictive and nonrestrictive

Uses of the –ing form
Rule
Examples
1.
A gerund is the -ing form of a verb.
swim—swimming, dance—dancing
study—studying, read—reading
2.
A gerund can be the subject of a sentence.
Dancing is good for your health.
Going to the movies is fun.
3.
A gerund can be the object of a verb +
a preposition or a verb phrase +
a preposition.
be afraid of, get used to, be a preposition
about, get bored with, get tired of, look forward to , be good
at, be nervous about, talk about
Some people are afraid of getting married.
I’m looking forward to seeing you soon.
4.
A gerund can be the object of certain verbs.
avoid, delay, discuss, dislike, enjoy, finish, miss, practice,
quit, have trouble, regret,
spend time
Some students avoid taking tests.
He regrets leaving his job.
Relative clauses: restrictive and nonrestrictive
Meaning
Examples
Rules/Guidelines
LATs are people who live
apart but have a
permanent relationship.
The relative that can
replace who or which in these
clauses.
Restrictive clauses
The information in the clause provides essential
information. Without this information, the sentence
may lose its meaning or the meaning may change or
be incomplete.
It is incorrect to use commas.
You can omit the relative
pronoun, if it is the object of the
clause.
Nonrestrictive clauses
The clause contains additional information that is not
essential to the meaning.
Zinedine Zidane, who/m I
would love to meet, is an
incredible soccer player.
Use who/m and which only.
Always use commas.
Never omit the relative pronoun.
Uses of the present perfect
Example
Use
1.
ÊThe Vienna Boysâ Choir has been performing since 1498.
To talk about an action or situation
that began in the past and is still
true in the present
2.
Times have changed for the Vienna Boysâ Choir.
To talk about actions or events that
have finished but are still recent, or
are recent news
3.
The choir has just finished singing.
To talk about something that
happened in the immediate past
4.
The Vienna Boysâ Choir has traveled a lot.
To talk about actions and events
that are part of our experience
5.
(a) The Choir has already established partnerships with famous pop
singers.
(b) So far, they have recorded the soundtracks for two films.
(c) They havenât won any pop awards yet.
With expressions like already, yet,
so far
(a) to emphasize how quickly or
slowly things have been done
(b) and (c) to report progress up to
the present point in ongoing or
repeated actions
Present vs. the simple past
Present perfect
Simple past
I've just finished.
I finished recording my new record
last week.
Iâve finished already.
Paul left the studio a couple of
minutes ago.
To talk about an action or state that has stopped in the recent past, or to
comment on progress in a schedule with no specific time reference.
To talk about an actions or states
that stopped at a specific point of
time in the past÷even the recent
past.
Have you ever lived in Los Angeles?
Did you live in Los Angeles for
many years?
Iâve had two cups of tea today.
To relate past actions or states to present experience; these actions may
happen again
To refer to actions or states that
continued for a long time in the
past but no longer happen or are
no longer true.
Iâve been to Central Park several times.
When I was a child in New York,
my parents took me to Central
Park every Sunday.
To talk about repeated past actions that have happened up to the present
time.They have no specific past time reference and could happen again.
To talk about actions or habits that
were repeated in the past but that
are no longer true or no longer
happen.
Past perfect
Simple past
Past perfect
The simple past describes an event (or state) which
happened in the past.
When two events happen in the past and one happens
before the other, the past perfect is often used to describe
the earlier event.
Venus Williams won the Grand Slam at Wimbledon in When Venus Williams won the Grand Slam at Wimbledon in
2001.
2001, she had already won it once before.
Notes: The past perfect can be used with time words such as before, after, and until to make the sequence of
events clear, but the simple past can also be used if the sequence is clear.
It is preferable to use the past perfect with already, by the time (that), and when meaning before.
Passive Voice
Forms of the Passive Voice
Some Uses of the Passive Voice
The verb be + the past participle of a verb
The passive voice is used without mentioning
the agent, i.e. the person or thing doing the
action, in situations such as these:
1.
Trees are being cut down to make new farmland.
1.
It is obvious or understood who the
agent is.
It is obvious that it is farmers who cut
down the trees.
2.
In some parts of the world, donkeys are used as pack
animals.
2.
The object of the action is more
important to us than the agent.
It is the donkeys that are important and
not the people who use them.
3.
Many reports are circulated on the Internet about the
problem of the rain forests.
3.
It is not known who the agent is.
We do not know who circulates the
reports.
Grammar Summary
More uses of the öing form
1.
Always use the gerund form when these verbs are followed by another
verb: enjoy, dislike, finish, mind, suggest, avoid, canât help, canât stand.
I canât help admiring
parrots.They are so versatile.
2.
Always use the infinitive when these verbs are followed by another
verb: decide, want, plan, prepare, agree, choose, hope, seem.
Theyâre planning to go on a
safari this year.
3.
Use either the gerund or the infinitive after these verbs when they are
followed by another verb: like, prefer, love, hate, start.
She prefers to drink green tea.
She prefers drinking green tea
to black.
4.
Use the gerund or infinitive with these verbs, but remember the meaning
changes: remember, forget, try.
They canât remember meeting
me before.
I hope he remembers to come
tonight.
5.
Use the -ing form to replace a restrictive relative clause or independent
clause to make your writing style more concise.
The lion that is lying in the sun
is very funny.
The lion lying in the sun is very
funny.
Unreal past (third) conditional
Type of conditional
Verb in main clause
Verb in conditional clause
She may/will come if it doesnât rain
will, may, should, can,
must
If + simple present or present
progressive
She may/will come if it isnât raining.
imperative
Open (first) conditional
The condition may or may not happen.
Unreal (second) conditional
If he were in my position, heâd understand
would (Abbreviated
to Îd)
If + simple past
Heâd go on safari if he had the money.
could
If + were (simple past
subjunctive of be)
Can refer to present or future. It is not likely that the
condition will happen.
might
Unreal past (third) conditional
If I had been careful, I wouldnât have lost my ticket.
would have
The condition cannot happen.
could have
It refers only to the past.
might have
If + past perfect
The conditional clause can come before or after the main clause in all cases.
Iâd tell him if I were you. ÊÊ If I were you, Iâd tell him. If the conditional clause comes second, put a comma after
the if clause.
Passive voice: simple past
Passive voice: simple past
Examples
The simple past in the passive voice is formed with the simple past
of the verb be and the past participle.
The Taj Mahal was completed in
1648.
I wasnât told about the party.
Nonuse of the agent when:
The agent is not important.
The agent is not known.
The agent is obvious.
The speaker wants to conceal the agent.
The letter was delivered yesterday.
My suitcase was stolen.
He was elected president in 2002.
A serious mistake was made last
week.
Use of agent when:
The proper name of the agent is important.
To emphasize the doer or cause of the action.
In 2002, the Best Actress Oscar was
won by Halle Berry.
They were attacked by a pack of wild
dogs.
Cause and effect
Such...that (normal)
Examples
With singular count nouns, use such + a/n + adjective 1 singular noun
+ that...
It was such a good movie that the
audience applauded at the end.
With plural count nouns and singular non-count nouns, use such +
adjective + noun + that...
The actress had such beautiful eyes that
audiences fell in love with her.
That restaurant serves such delicious
food that itâs hard to get a table.
Such...that (emphasis)
Examples
Use such with an abstract noun and without an adjective.
Separate such from its noun and invert the verb.
Such was his love for her that he forgave
her everything.
So...that (normal)
Examples
So + adjective or adverb + that
This fad is so popular that everybody is
doing it.
The choir members worked so intensely
last month that they are now exhausted.
So much / little + (adjective) + non-count noun + that...
There is so little (upbeat) entertainment
in the country that I would get bored
living there.
There is so much (good) food in this city
that I am sure to eat a lot while Iâm here.
So many / few + (adjective) + count noun
Iâve got so few (real) friends here that I
donât want to stay.
There were so many (high) dunes in the
desert that they got tired walking over
them.
So...that (emphatic)
Examples
Use with so + adjective + that...Keep the adjective together with so and
invert the verb
So tired were we that we went to bed at
once.
Note: In all cases that can be omitted
This fad is so popular everybody is doing
it.
Modals with present, past, and perfect infinitive
Present tense meanings of modal verbs
Past tense meanings of modal verbs
can: (1) ability, (2) theoretical possibility
may: (1) permission, (2) possibility
have to: necessity
must: strong obligation
should: (1) advice, (2) moral obligation
could: general past ability (applies to more than one
occasion)
allow (to): permission
manage / be able (to): be able to do something on one
specific past occasion
had to: (1) strong obligation (2) necessity
Past perfect constructions with modal verbs
must have + past participle: a logical deduction about something that has happened
could have + past participle: a possibility that did not happen
should have + past participle: a criticism, regret, or accusation about something that has happened
may have + past participle: a possible explanation for something that has happened
Note: Some modal verbs can be used in various ways to express different ideas. This unit deals with some of the
uses and meanings of some common modal verbs.
The zero / habitual conditional; review of all conditionals
Type of conditional sentence
Notes
Habitual activity
If I am happy, I share my happiness with a friend.
If I had a problem as a child, I told my grandmother.
Both verbs are in the simple present.
Both verbs are in the simple past.
Scientific fact or universal truth
If there are a lot of cars in a city, pollution gets worse.
If seawater evaporates, it rises.
Both verbs are in the simple present.
Both verbs are in the simple present.
Real past affects future
If theyâve practiced, they will play well today.
If sheâs been working hard, she will go to bed early.
Unreal present affects past
If they werenât so skillful, they wouldnât have won.
Unreal past affects present
If she hadnât gotten to a hospital, she would be dead.
The verb in the if clause is in the present perfect or
present perfect continuous, and the verb in the main
clause is in the future tense.
The verb in the if clause is in the simple past, and
the verb in the main clause is in the past
conditional: would/n't have + pp.
The verb in the if clause is in the past perfect, and
the verb in the main clause is in the conditional:
would + simple or progressive infinitive.
Donât forget: With habitual actions, scientific fact, or eternal truths, when or whenever can replace if.
Noun clause: subject, object, complement
Rules
Examples
1.
ÊIf the noun clause is the object of the verb, and it is
introduced by the connector that, that can be omitted.
1.
Movie critics often
believe (that) only famous actors
can be successful.
2.
ÊThat cannot be omitted if the noun clause is the subject of
the sentence.
2.
That I am happy despite my
problems says a lot about my
friends.
3.
ÊWh- connectors can never be omitted, whether they
introduce the subject or direct object.
3.
(a) I donât believe what you say.
(b) Why he did that is still a
mystery.
(c)This is what I believe.
4.
ÊThe noun clause always comes after the preposition in
sentences with adjectives + prepositions or two or three
word verbs.
4.
(a) Your health depends a lot on
what you eat.
(b) We were shocked by how
quickly their friendship ended.