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Mata kuliah
Dosen Pembuat
Tahun
: J0754 - Pengelolaan Organisasi Entrepreneurial
: D3122 - Rudy Aryanto
: 2009
Perilaku Individu
Chapter 9
Learning Objectives
– Define perception and explain its role in understanding
and coping with
organizational life
– Describe how self-efficacy can influence
an employee’s behavior
– Discuss why increasing diversity of the workforce
requires the adoption of a different approach/style of
managing employees
– Compare the meaning of the psychological contract
from employee and employer perspectives
– Explain why it’s difficult to change an attitude
Understanding Behavior
• Variables that influence behavior
– Abilities and skills
– Background
– Demographic variables
• Can any manager modify, mold, or reconstruct
behaviors?
– This is much debated among behavioral scientists and
managerial practitioners
Individual Behavior Framework
The
Environment
The
Individual
Behaviors
Outcomes
Individual Behavior
• To understand individual differences, managers must
– Observe and recognize the differences
– Study variables that influence individual behavior
– Discover relationships among the variables
Individual Behavior
• Research finds that behavior
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Is caused
Is goal directed
Can be observed
Is measurable
Is motivated
• Behavior that is not directly observable is also important
in accomplishing goals
Individual Behavior
• Questions that help managers pinpoint performance
issues
– Does the employee have the skill and ability to perform the job?
– Does the employee have the resources
to perform the job?
– Is the employee aware of the performance problem?
Individual Behavior
• Questions (continued)
– When did the performance problem surface?
– How do the employee’s co-workers
react to the performance problem?
– What can I do as a manager to
alleviate the performance problem?
Individual Differences
• Poor performance
– Even highly motivated employees may not have the abilities or
skills to perform well
• Ability
– A biological or learned trait that permits a person to do
something mental or physical
• Skills
– Task-related competencies
Individual Differences
• Job analysis
– Defining and studying a job in terms
of behavior
– Specifying education and training
needed to perform the job
– Used to take some of the guesswork
out of matching jobs to people
• Matching people with jobs is often
a problem
Matching People to Jobs
• Matching people to jobs involves
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Employee selection
Training and development
Career planning
Employee counseling
• Managers must examine
– Job content
– Required behaviors
– Preferred behaviors
Skills and Abilities
• Mental ability examples
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Flexibility
Fluency and verbal comprehension
Inductive reasoning
Associative memory
Span memory
Number facility
Deductive reasoning
Spatial orientation and visualization
Skills and Abilities
• Physical skill examples
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Dynamic strength
Extent flexibility
Gross body coordination
Gross body equilibrium
Stamina
Demographics
• Among the most important demographic classifications
– Gender
– Race
– Cultural diversity
Demographics
• White male research results should
not influence
– Decisions
– Prescriptions
– Techniques
• Faulty generalizations lead to
– Improper assumptions
– Inadequate solutions
– Inaccurate rewards and evaluations
Psychological Variables
Perception
Emotional
Intelligence
Personality
Attribution
Attitudes
Perception
• Perception is based on five senses
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Sight
Touch
Hearing
Taste
Smell
• Perception helps individuals
– Select, organize, store, and interpret stimuli into a meaningful
and coherent picture of the world.
Differing Perceptions
• A manager believes employees have opportunities to
judge how to do the job
– The employee feels there is no freedom
to make judgments
• A worker’s response to a request is based on what she
thought she heard
– It was not based on what was actually requested
• A manager considers a product to be
of high quality
– The customer feels it is poorly made
Perceptual Differences & Behavior
Manager’s perception
Worker has lots of freedom
to make decisions
Freedom
worker is
given
Worker’s perception
I am not given freedom to
make decisions
Manager’s behavior
Worker’s behavior
No concern about freedom
given to worker
Feeling of being left out
Staying home
Manager’s behavior
Worker’s behavior
Puzzled by the absence
record of worker
Belief that no one really
cares
Stereotyping
• Over-generalized, over-simplified belief about people’s
personal characteristics
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Most people engage in stereotyping
Applies to both people and occupations
Self-perpetuating
Affects promotions, motivation, job design, or performance
evaluation
• Situational factors, needs, emotions can affect
perceptual accuracy
Stereotyping
• Stereotyping is perpetuated by
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Selective perception
The manager’s characteristics
Situational factors
Needs
Emotions
Attribution
• The process of perceiving the causes of behavior
and outcomes
Attribution
• Dispositional attributions
– Emphasize some aspect of the individual
• Situational attributions
– Emphasize the environment’s effect on behavior
• Before deciding if behavior is due to
the person or the situation, consider
– Consensus
– Distinctiveness
– Consistency
Attribution
• Types of attribution errors
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Attributional bias
Fundamental attribution error
General positivity (the Pollyanna principle)
Self-serving bias
Attitudes
• A positive or negative feeling or mental state of
readiness
– Learned, organized through experience
– Influences a person’s response to people, objects, and situations
• Components of an attitude
– Affect
– Cognition
– Behavior
Outcomes of Attitudes
Stimuli
Work factors
Job design
Manager style
Company policies
Technology
Salary
Benefits
Attitudes
Components
Affect
Cognition
Behavior
Outcomes
Responses
Emotional
Perceptual
Action
Cognitive Dissonance
• A mental state of anxiety
– Occurs when there’s a conflict among
an individual’s various cognitions
after a decision has been made
Cognitive Dissonance
• Organizational implications
– Helps explain the choices made by someone with attitude
inconsistency
– Can help predict a person’s propensity
to change attitudes
• If one is required to do or say things that contract
personal attitudes
– An attitude may be chosen that is more compatible with what
they’ve said or done
Attitudes
• Changing employee attitudes
– Can hinder job performance
• Factors that affect attitude change
– Trust in the sender
– The message itself
– The situation
Attitudes and Values
• Values
– The conscious, affective desires and wants that guide behavior
• Once internalized, values
– Become a standard for guiding one’s actions
– Affect the perceptions of appropriate ends and the appropriate
means to those ends
Attitudes and Job Satisfaction
• Job satisfaction
– Attitude individuals have about their jobs
– Results from their perception of the jobs
• Dimensions linked to job satisfaction
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Pay
Job
Promotion opportunities
Supervisor
Co-workers
Satisfaction-Performance Views
1. Job satisfaction
2. Job satisfaction
3. Job satisfaction
causes
“The satisfied worker is more
productive.”
is caused by
“The more productive worker
is satisfied.”
“There is no specific
direction or relationship.”
Job Performance
Job Performance
Job Performance
Job Satisfaction Comparison
• Prottas and Thompson findings
– Self-employment is a better career choice than organizational
employment
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Higher levels of job satisfaction
Lower job stress
Higher levels of job autonomy satisfaction
Lower levels of job pressure
Job-Customer Satisfaction
• Most businesses in developed countries are service
oriented
– Only satisfied customers return
– Satisfied employees increase customer satisfaction and loyalty
• Job satisfaction and customer satisfaction flow in both
directions
– Rude, unhappy customers can result
in dissatisfied employees
Personality
• Characteristics, tendencies, and temperaments
– Determines commonalities and
differences in people’s behavior
Personality
• Personality is influenced by
– Hereditary factors
– Cultural factors
– Social class and other group
membership forces
– Family and environment
Ego Defense Mechanisms
• Some ego defense mechanisms
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Rationalization
Identification
Compensation
Denial of reality
Theories of Personality
• Trait Personality Theories
– Predispositions direct the behavior of
an individual in a consistent pattern
• Psychodynamic Personality Theories
– Freudian approach (id, superego, ego)
– Emphasis on subconscious determinants of behavior
• Humanistic Personality Theories
– Emphasis on growth and self-actualization
Measuring Personality
• Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory
– Statements to which one responds True,
False, or Cannot Say
– Covers health, psychosomatic symptoms, neurological
disorders, social attitudes,
phobias, delusions, and sadistic tendencies
Measuring Personality
• Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI)
– Assesses personality or cognitive style
– Extroverted or introverted, sensory or intuitive, thinking or
feeling, perceiving or judging
Big Five Model
• “Big Five” personality dimensions
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Conscientiousness
Extraversion-Introversion
Agreeableness
Emotional Stability
Openness to Experience
Self-Efficacy
Believing that you can
perform adequately in a situation
Self-Efficacy
• Self-efficacy has three dimensions
– Magnitude
– Strength
– Generality
• A person with high self-efficacy is motivated
toward achievement
• Machiavellianism
– Negative connotation associated with political maneuvering and
power manipulation
Creativity
• The generation of novel ideas that may be converted
into opportunities
– Should be a core competency
– The first step in the innovation process
Developing Creativity
• Buffering
– Look for ways to absorb the risks of creative decisions made by
employees
• Organizational time-outs
– Give people time off to work on a
problem and think things through
• Intuition
– Give half-baked or raw ideas a chance
Developing Creativity
• Innovative attitudes
– Encourage everyone to solve problems
• Innovative organizational structures
– Let employees see and interact with
many managers and mentors
Emotional Intelligence
• The ability to accurately perceive, evaluate, express,
and regulate emotions and feelings
The Psychological Contract
• An implied understanding of mutual contributions
between a person and
an organization
The Psychological Contract
• Violation
– A person perceives that the organization has failed honor one or
more obligations
• Common obligations
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Job security and feedback
Childcare benefits
Merit-based pay raises
Job autonomy
Computer training
Promotion