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RESEARCH includes research articles that focus on the analysis and resolution of managerial and academic issues based on analytical and empirical or case research Executive Summary How Celebrities are Used in Indian Television Commercials Varsha Jain, Subhadip Roy, Aarzoo Daswani and Mari Sudha The usage of celebrities by the Indian advertising agencies has experienced a phenomenal increase in the last five years. Effective communication between the marketer and the consumers is the need of the hour and celebrity endorsement is a strategy that is perceived as making full use of this opportunity. Most of the countries have adopted this strategy as an effective marketing tool and even India is carving out space for itself in this arena. The present study attempts to meet three objectives: • to identify the mode/s in which a celebrity is depicted in Indian television commercials • to ascertain relationship (if any) between the category of product endorsed and the type of celebrity used • to identify the correspondence between product categories and mode of celebrity presence. For the first objective of identifying the nature of celebrity portrayal, four modes given by McCracken (1989) were used: • • • • Explicit mode (the celebrity overtly declares the product endorsement) Implicit mode (physical or verbal communication is used by the celebrity) Imperative mode (the celebrity suggests the viewers to use the product) Co-present mode (the celebrity only appears with the product). For the second and third objectives, cross-tabulated frequency distribution method was used. Content analysis of Indian television commercials was done for the period 1995-2007. The criterion used for selection of advertisements was the presence of celebrity in any form in the ad. On this basis, 558 television commercials (TVCs) were selected featuring a total of 56 celebrities. The findings of the study indicated that: KEY WORDS Celebrity Endorsement Television Advertisement Celebrity Portrayal Content Analysis • Around 64 per cent of the commercials used the implicit mode of celebrity portrayal for different product categories. • Usage of film celebrities was more extensive than sports celebrities in major product categories. This was probably because the shelf life of fame for a film celebrity is more than that of the sports celebrity. • Male celebrities dominated the product categories like food and beverage, automobiles, and consumer durables. The female celebrities were featured majorly in beauty products. No distinct association was found between the product categories considered and the mode used for celebrity portrayal. The study findings contributed to the academia as well as practitioners. For the academia, the study identified the most dominant mode of celebrity advertising in India and found that there was no correspondence between the mode in which a celebrity was portrayed and the product category endorsed. For the practitioners, the study identified the lesser used modes of celebrity endorsements which could be used as opportunities. VIKALPA • VOLUME 35 • NO 4 • OCTOBER - DECEMBER 2010 45 T he Indian advertising industry, with an estimated value of INR 13,200 crore, has shown an astonishing growth and creativity in the recent times (Indian Advertising Industry, 2010). The industry is growing at an average rate of 10-12 per cent per annum. Some of the commonly used media for advertising are TV, radio, websites, newspapers, magazines, and outof-home (OOH). In these media, one of the intriguing communication tools used for delivering the advertisement message is celebrity endorsement. Celebrity endorsements have become a very prominent strategy for promoting brands to mass population, grabbing a 24 per cent share in the total annual marketing budget of a marketer. For example, a hefty sum of INR 600 crore (130 million US $) is annually rewarded to a certain celebrity in the form of endorsement fee (Shashidhar, 2008). If we look back into the history of celebrity endorsements in India, we find the first instance featuring an Indian actress in 1929. The trend of celebrity endorsements boomed, however, in the late 1990s. Generally, film actors and cricketers enjoy the status of a celebrity; Indians love talking about their favourite celebrities and look up and aspire to be like them. A report by the Federation of Indian Chambers of Commerce and Industry (FICCI) stated that 60 per cent of the Indian brands used celebrities in some form in 2008 as compared to 25 per cent in 2001. Celebrity mania is such that even small brands with low marketing budget decide on signing celebrities for endorsement purposes (Shashidhar, 2008). The phenomenon is consistent with the global trend of celebrity endorsments. The perceived benefit derived is to rise above the ad clutter and build an effective marketing communication strategy. Research findings have indicated that in some countries, 25 to 30 per cent of the advertisements feature celebrities (Agrawal and Kamakura, 1995; Choi, Wei-Na and Hee-Jung, 2005). However, celebrity endorsements involve a large sum of money and the risk keeps varying with the latest happenings in the professional life of the celebrity (sometimes even personal life). According to the Director of the College Sports Management, a celebrity management firm that has managed some top celebrity cricketers in India, the endorsement fees has a direct relationship with the performance of the celebrity. Similar thoughts have been voiced by the COO of Percept Talent Management who opines that sports celebrities in form can demand more endorsement fees from the advertisers. 46 REVIEW OF LITERATURE According to McCracken (1989), a celebrity could be defined as, “any individual who enjoys public recognition and who uses this recognition when they appear in the advertisement in front of the consumers.” There are multiple roles that a celebrity spokesperson may play (and the roles may not be mutually exclusive) (Kamen, Azhari and Kragh, 1975) in an advertisement such as that of a spokesperson, endorser, provider of a testimonial, or an actor. A spokesperson represents the company or brand like a salesman, while an endorser is associated with the brand even though he may not be an expert in the product category of the brand. In case of testimonials, the superiority of the product is attested by an individual or the personal experience of the celebrity. Lastly, the celebrity actor is only a character in a dramatic presentation in the ad. McCracken (1989) suggested four different modes of celebrity endorsers namely, Explicit mode, Implicit mode, Imperative mode, and the Co-present mode. In the explicit mode, the celebrity announces the endorsement of a product, while in the implicit mode, the celebrity uses verbal or physical communication for the product. In the imperative mode, the celebrity suggests the audience to use the endorsed product while the celebrity only appears with the product in the co-present mode. The study of celebrity endorsements in the past 30 years have centred around two broad themes: source credibility and celebrity-brand congruence. Source credibility studies focus on the factors defining the credibility of a celebrity. Credibility of a celebrity has been found to be a major factor influencing consumer attitudes. Research has identified three dimensions of source credibility: attractiveness, expertise, and trustworthiness. Some of the studies (e.g., Ohanian, 1990) have used all the three dimensions to develop a scale that can measure credibility. On the other hand, there are studies that have analysed only one or two dimensions of credibility and its impact on the consumer (Weiner and Mowen, 1986; Friedman and Friedman, 1979; Kamins and Gupta, 1994). However, the findings from these studies have been quite contradictory. While some studies have found trustworthiness to be the most important dimension of source credibility (McGinnies and Ward, 1980; Atkin and HOW CELEBRITIES ARE USED IN INDIAN TELEVISION COMMERCIALS Block, 1983 and Kamins, 1989), others have emphasized attractiveness (Baker and Churchill, 1977; Kahle and Homer, 1985; Caballero et al., 1989; Silvera and Austad, 2004) or have suggested expertise (Maddux and Rogers, 1980; Swartz, 1984; Ohanian, 1991) to be the most important parameter. tisement before we start analysing the effectiveness of celebrity endorsements on the consumers. Given the fact that the Indian marketplace is experiencing a spurt of celebrity endorsements, the need becomes all the more relevant. Thus, we need to analyse the content of celebrity advertisements, particularly in the Indian context. The celebrity-brand congruence studies have focused on the similarity between product and celebrity. The congruence theory proposes a match between the celebrity and the product endorsed to be a necessary condition for the endorsement to be effective. Several studies on celebrity brand congruence have been done in the late 90’s (Kamins, 1990; Misra and Beatty, 1990; Kamins and Gupta, 1994; Mittelstaedt, Riesz and Burns, 2000). However, even in congruence studies, there have been contradictions. In a study by Speck, Schumann and Thompson (1988), a celebrity who was incongruent with the product endorsed was found to have the same impact on the advertising recall as the celebrity who was congruent with the product. In another study on advertisements in sports, Jones and Schumann (2000) observed female celebrities endorsing products used by males, which went against the congruence theory. In a different view from both the source credibility and the congruence theories, McCracken (1989) proposed the Meaning Transfer Model to explain the phenomenon of celebrity endorsements. He suggested that there is a transfer of meaning from the celebrity to the product endorsed and eventually to the consumer through its consumption. According to McCracken, celebrities portray a set of meanings for the consumers which moves to the products they endorse through advertisements. The broad aim of the proposed study is to analyse the nature of celebrity endorsements in Indian Television Commercials (TVCs). The main focus however will be on the mode in which the celebrity is used in an advertisement as suggested by McCracken (1989), namely, the Explicit Mode, Implicit Mode, Imperative Mode, and Copresent Mode. Both Kamen, Azhari and Kragh (1975) and McCracken (1989) have not given any indication about which mode of celebrity portrayal should be used in which product category. However, it would be interesting to find out whether there is any dominant mode of celebrity portrayal in celebrity advertising. Thus, the second objective of the study is to check for correspondence between the product category and the modes in which a celebrity is used. Lastly, to add to the findings of Jones and Schumann (2000), there is a need to identify the relation (if any) between the nature of the product category and the celebrity occupation and gender. Thus, the third objective of the study is to look for the relationship between celebrity gender and occupation and product category endorsed. Literature Gap and Study Objectives If we scan the celebrity endorsement literature over the last thirty years, we find that very few studies have tried to analyse the content of celebrity advertisements. A study conducted by Pringle and Binet (2005) suggested that celebrities could be used in different forms like a customer, placement, testimonial, owner, employee, and sponsor. In a content analysis of athlete endorsers for sports advertising (Jones and Schumann, 2000), male athletes were found to endorse female-oriented products which were not related to sports. Even the advertisement message was missing in certain portions of the advertisement. This implies that there is a need to understand the way a celebrity is portrayed in an adverVIKALPA • VOLUME 35 • NO 4 • OCTOBER - DECEMBER 2010 METHODOLOGY Since the nature of the study here was to explore communication material, content analysis was the selected methodology to fulfill the first objective. Content analysis has been applied in analysing communication message without the researcher’s interpretation (Kassarjian, 1977). TVCs were selected as the study variable. To fulfill the second and third objectives, cross-tabulated frequency tables were used. Data Collection and Sample Characteristics Television commercials were downloaded from www.youtube.com, which contains a large collection of advertisements. The earliest ad available was from the year 1995. Thus, a list of all those celebrities who endorsed products between 1995 and 2007 was prepared and as per the list, the advertisements were downloaded. The selection criterion was that an advertisement should have the celebrity present in any of the four modes sug- 47 gested by McCracken (1989). This resulted in a set of 558 unique television commercials featuring celebrities. Since the unit of analysis was a single celebrity, the ads with multiple celebrities were excluded. A total of 56 celebrities were identified from the TVCs who were found to endorse products ranging from soft drinks to cars (Appendix 1). The preliminary analysis consisted of a descriptive study of the ads and the celebrities portrayed in them. The Indian cricket legend Sachin Tendulkar was the most featured celebrity with 57 ads followed by actors Amitabh Bachchan and Shahrukh Khan with 46 and 44 ads respectively. A total of 17 celebrities were found to have more than 10 ads to their credit (Appendix 1). Coding The coding was based on McCracken’s (1989) four modes of the presence of a celebrity in an advertisement: Explicit, Implicit, Imperative, and Co-present. Each ad was viewed several times to capture the mode of portrayal of the celebrity in the ad and coded independently by two coders. The results thus obtained were compared across the two coders’ output to ensure reliability (Kassarjian, 1977). Thus the codes categorized the ads into four categories. Before analysing the correspondence between the mode of presence of a celebrity and the product category, a round of data filtering was performed. Only those product categories/groups, which had a more than 5 per cent presence in the total dataset, were retained in the sample. This was done to reduce the number of categories with very small frequencies since that would have created disturbances in the analysis. Six categories (out of a total of 32) were retained namely, food and beverages, automobiles, beauty products, consumer durables, hair care, and fashion. The total number of ads to be analysed was reduced to 363 (65.05% of total ads) (Refer to Table 2 for descriptive statistics). Table 1: Modes of Celebrity Portrayal in TVC Celebrity Mode Frequency % Implicit 356 63.8 Imperative 115 20.6 Co-present 81 14.5 6 1.1 558 100 Explicit Total Table 2: Frequency Distribution of Ads by Product Category in TVC Product Category No. of Ads % 161 44.4 Automobiles 51 14.0 Beauty Products 43 11.8 Consumer Durables 43 11.8 Food and Beverages Once the coding was over, the results of the two coders were compared. The inter-coder reliability was calculated using Holsti method and was found to be 0.9014. It was observed that in most cases, there was complete agreement between the two coders. There were a few discrepancies which were resolved after detailed investigation of the ads and involvement of a third party observer, resulting in inter-coder agreement. To further ensure reliability, twenty-five ads were randomly selected from the sample and shown independently to three neutral observers and their opinion about the mode of the celebrity presence was noted. The observers’ view differed from that of the coders only in six out of the 75 ads shown (twenty-five each to the observers), thereby ensuring external validity. RESULTS A frequency analysis of the modes of celebrity portrayal in an ad showed the Implicit Mode to be the most frequent mode with 356 ads out of 558 (63.8%) as shown in Table 1, followed by the Imperative Mode. 48 Hair Care 35 9.6 Fashion 30 8.3 363 100.0 Total From the results, it was evident that there was no clear correspondence between the product categories and the mode of celebrity presence in the ads of those products. Majority of the celebrities were being portrayed in the Implicit Mode across all product categories (Refer to Table 3). Two cross-tabulated frequency charts gave an indication of the nature of correspondence between the celebrity type and the product category. The first one tried to find out the relation (if any) between the occupation of the celebrity and the product category endorsed. There were three categories of celebrity occupation, namely, film industry, sports, and others. From the cross-tabulated results, it was evident that in all the major product HOW CELEBRITIES ARE USED IN INDIAN TELEVISION COMMERCIALS Table 3: Cross Tabulated Frequency Distribution (Celebrity Mode vs. Product Category) CELEBRITY MODE PRODUCT CATEGORY Food and Beverages Beauty Products and Cosmetics Automobiles Fashion Consumer Durables Hair Care Total Explicit 1 1 1 0 1 0 4 Implicit 121 27 39 27 28 22 264 Imperative 24 10 6 2 3 6 51 Co-present 15 15 5 1 11 7 44 161 43 51 30 43 35 363 Hair Care Total Total Table 4: Cross Tabulated Frequency Distribution (Celebrity Occupation vs. Product Category) CELEBRITY OCCUPATION PRODUCT CATEGORY Food and Beverages Beauty Products and Cosmetics Automobiles Fashion 118 42 34 28 25 31 278 Sports 39 1 17 2 18 4 81 Others 4 0 0 0 0 0 4 161 43 51 30 43 35 363 Hair Care Total 231 Film Industry Total Consumer Durables Table 5: Cross Tabulated Frequency Distribution (Celebrity Gender vs Product category) CELEBRITY GENDER Male Female Total PRODUCT CATEGORY Food and Beverages Beauty Products and Cosmetics Automobiles Fashion 122 10 39 14 32 14 39 33 12 16 11 21 132 161 43 51 30 43 35 363 categories, film celebrities were more extensively used than sports celebrities (Refer to Table 4). However, observing the sports celebrities in isolation, food and beverages was the major product category to use them. And among all the ads in the product category, sports goods were found to be endorsed by sports celebrities. The second relation (if any) was between the gender of the celebrity and the product category endorsed. Male celebrities were found to dominate in the food and beverage, automobile, and consumer durables while female celebrities dominated in the rest of the categories (Refer to Table 5). DISCUSSION The content analysis revealed that most of the ads using celebrity endorsers were of the implicit (suggestive) nature. This may imply that a popular celebrity in the Implicit Mode could be used effectively by a brand, a very important determinant of which may be culture. Indian culture, because of its high context nature (Hofstede, 2001), relies more on subtle non-verbal communication VIKALPA • VOLUME 35 • NO 4 • OCTOBER - DECEMBER 2010 Consumer Durables rather than its explicit nature of communication. This also supports Choi, Wei-Na and Hee-Jung (2005), who found Korean celebrity advertisements to be of more implicit nature. The endorsements of food and beverage products by sports celebrities support the celebrityproduct congruence theory (Kamins, 1990). Most of the products endorsed by sports persons in the food and beverages category were energy or health drinks. The sportsmen/women were perceived as experts in that category, which was one of the requirements for successful endorsements (Peetz, Parks and Spencer, 2004; Biswas, Biswas and Das, 2006). Lastly, the use of female celebrities for beauty products supported the role of attractiveness to increase credibility of the endorsement. Literature suggests that an attractive celebrity is expected to be more effective in case of a product which enhances attractiveness (Kamins, 1990; Till and Busler, 1998; Bower and Landreth, 2001). Thus the study supported the two main streams of research in celebrity endorsements. The major presence of the Implicit Mode indicates the fact that the advertisers want to use the credibility of the celeb- 49 rity to get through to the consumer. The only difference between the Indian and Western markets is regarding their cultural contexts. The study also supported the congruence theory since most sports celebrities were found to endorse sports brands and female celebrities were found to endorse products made for women. The fact that most sports products were endorsed by sports celebrities also reflected support for McCracken’s (1989) Meaning Transfer Model. Most celebrities have an image and in case a sports celebrity is endorsing an energy drink, he/she is supposed to transfer the concept of energy that he/she represents to the product and thereby to the consumers through consumption. IMPLICATIONS This study, trying to identify the nature of celebrity portrayal in television advertisements, is one of its kind in India. Most of the advertisements in the Indian scenario were found to be in the Implicit Mode, i.e., where the celebrity indirectly suggested the consumer to use a particular product or brand. One of the reasons behind this could be the cultural context of India. The second reason could be due to the media. The Implicit Mode may be ideal for television advertisements since many a time, the celebrity plays the role of a character in the ad which is like a story. However, this could be harmful in case the celebrity faced any public controversy or did not excel in his own domain. For example, a particular cricketer could not score runs in the real match while the ad shows him scoring a lot of runs. For the practitioner, this may be an opportunity wherein the celebrity can be portrayed in a different mode and given an opportunity to rise above the clutter. However, since the time involvement of the viewer is low for a TVC, using the celebrities in other modes may not be worth it since the consumers will not remember the speech/testimonial given by the celebrity. Thus, while dealing with celebrities, the practitioners can consider these aspects and develop ads accordingly. A content analysis is not a causal or predictive methodology. However, the analysis of the nature of the communication brings out how content is represented besides determining the patterns of communication. Three major implications of the study could thus be summarized as follows. First, the study supported the existing literature in celebrity endorsements. Second, the study found the dominant mode of celebrity portrayal 50 in Indian markets and tried to find the reason behind it. Lastly, the study also acted as an eye-opener for the industry since the industry could take a cue from the findings and try to use celebrities in different modes in advertisements. LIMITATIONS AND SCOPE FOR FUTURE RESEARCH One of the limitations of this study was the restriction to national celebrities. Such studies could be conducted at regional levels to understand the nature of celebrity portrayals in ads at regional levels. Further, research could be conducted to look at the impact of the celebrity endorsements on sales of the products. This could take the form of a panel data analysis, but would be a worthwhile study as it would then answer the real question being asked about the impact of celebrity endorsements. A cross-country analysis involving countries with different cultural contexts may be an interesting addition to this study. It would be worth looking into whether the dominant mode of celebrity portrayal is different in the high and low cultural contexts. Appendix 1: List of Celebrity Appearing in Different Advertisements Celebrity Frequency Sachin Tendulkar 57 Amitabh Bachchan 46 Shahrukh Khan 44 Saif Ali Khan 38 Aishwarya Rai 29 Rani Mukherjee 21 Hrithik Roshan 20 Kajol 20 Rahul Dravid 19 Preity Zinta 18 John Abraham 16 Saurav Ganguly 16 Mahendra Shingh Dhoni 14 Aamir Khan 13 Sania Mirza 11 Abhishek Bachchan 11 Ajay Devgan 11 Kareena Kapoor 10 Kapil Dev 9 Boman Irani 8 Ajay Jadeja 8 Priyanka Chopra 8 Bipasha Basu 7 % 10.22 8.24 7.89 6.81 5.20 3.76 3.58 3.58 3.41 3.23 2.87 2.87 2.51 2.33 1.97 1.97 1.97 1.79 1.61 1.43 1.43 1.43 1.25 Cumulative % 10.22 18.46 26.35 33.16 38.36 42.12 45.70 49.28 52.69 55.92 58.79 61.66 64.17 66.50 68.47 70.44 72.41 74.20 75.81 77.24 78.67 80.10 81.35 HOW CELEBRITIES ARE USED IN INDIAN TELEVISION COMMERCIALS Appendix 1 (contd.) Celebrity Govinda Sushmita Sen Tabu Anil Kumble Paresh Rawal Rahul Khanna Salman Khan Sunny Deol Sonali Bendre Irfan Khan Karishma Kapoor Zakir Hussain Lara Dutta Anupam Kher Shahid Kapoor Madhavan Fardeen Khan Frequency 7 7 7 6 6 5 5 5 5 4 4 4 4 3 3 3 2 % 1.25 1.25 1.25 1.08 1.08 0.90 0.90 0.90 0.90 0.72 0.72 0.72 0.72 0.54 0.54 0.54 0.36 Cumulative % 82.60 83.85 85.10 86.18 87.26 88.16 89.06 89.96 90.86 91.58 92.30 93.02 93.74 94.28 94.82 95.36 95.72 Appendix 1 (contd.) 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Varsha Jain is a Research Fellow and the Division Head of integrated mareting communication at the Mudra Institute of Communications Research in Ahmedabad. She has taken her Ph.D in advertising and MBA in marketing stream. Prior to MICORE, she worked with ICFAI, Indore, where she won awards in teaching, research, and student supervision. Her research area is in integrated marketing communication. She has presented her research at international and national conferences like AMIC (Singapore), IMT Ghaziabad, IBS, Hyderabad, etc. In these conferences, her papers were among the best papers and some papers were published by the conference organizers in the journals or books. Her research findings are published in national and international journals and in leading newspapers like The Times of India and The Economic Times. She regularly contributes articles on current issues in marketing to national magazines. Aarzoo Daswani is a Research Associate, Department of Integrated Marketing Communication (IMC) at Mudra Institute of Communication Research (MICORE), Ahmedabad, India. She holds a Bachelors Degree in Information Technology from K S School of Business Management, and Post-Graduate Diploma in Marketing from the Som Lalit Institute of Business Management, Ahmedabad, India. Prior to this position, she worked as an Academic Associate, Department of Marketing, Indian Institute of Management, Ahmedabad (IIMA) for a span of six months. Her research interests include advertising communication and consumption pattern. e-mail: [email protected] Subhadip Roy is an Assistant Professor at the ICFAI Business School. He is also a Ph.D from the ICFAI University, Dehradun, India. His research interests are in the areas of brand management, advertising, and market research. He has presented papers in various national and international conferences, such as at the Indian Institute of Management, Ahmedabad, Decision Sciences Institute (DSI) Annual Conference, Association of International Business (AIB), etc. He has also published articles and research papers in national and international journals. e-mail: [email protected] Mari Sudha is a Research Associate in the Department of Integrated Marketing Communication (IMC) at the Mudra Institute of Communication Research (MICORE), Ahmedabad, India. She holds a Bachelors and a Masters Degree in Statistics from St. Xavier’s College, Ahmedabad and School of Sciences, Ahmedabad, India. Prior to this position, she worked as an Academic Associate in the Department of Production and Quantitative Methods (P&QM) and Public Systems Group (PSG), Indian Institute of Management, Ahmedabad (IIMA) for a year. Her research interests include operational research, applied statistics, social network analysis and culture, and advertising communication. e-mail: [email protected] e-mail: [email protected] 52 HOW CELEBRITIES ARE USED IN INDIAN TELEVISION COMMERCIALS