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Executive
Summary
How Celebrities are Used in
Indian Television Commercials
Varsha Jain, Subhadip Roy, Aarzoo Daswani and Mari Sudha
The usage of celebrities by the Indian advertising agencies has experienced a phenomenal
increase in the last five years. Effective communication between the marketer and the consumers is the need of the hour and celebrity endorsement is a strategy that is perceived as
making full use of this opportunity. Most of the countries have adopted this strategy as an
effective marketing tool and even India is carving out space for itself in this arena.
The present study attempts to meet three objectives:
• to identify the mode/s in which a celebrity is depicted in Indian television commercials
• to ascertain relationship (if any) between the category of product endorsed and the type of
celebrity used
• to identify the correspondence between product categories and mode of celebrity presence.
For the first objective of identifying the nature of celebrity portrayal, four modes given by
McCracken (1989) were used:
•
•
•
•
Explicit mode (the celebrity overtly declares the product endorsement)
Implicit mode (physical or verbal communication is used by the celebrity)
Imperative mode (the celebrity suggests the viewers to use the product)
Co-present mode (the celebrity only appears with the product).
For the second and third objectives, cross-tabulated frequency distribution method was used.
Content analysis of Indian television commercials was done for the period 1995-2007. The
criterion used for selection of advertisements was the presence of celebrity in any form in the
ad. On this basis, 558 television commercials (TVCs) were selected featuring a total of 56
celebrities.
The findings of the study indicated that:
KEY WORDS
Celebrity Endorsement
Television Advertisement
Celebrity Portrayal
Content Analysis
• Around 64 per cent of the commercials used the implicit mode of celebrity portrayal for
different product categories.
• Usage of film celebrities was more extensive than sports celebrities in major product categories. This was probably because the shelf life of fame for a film celebrity is more than
that of the sports celebrity.
• Male celebrities dominated the product categories like food and beverage, automobiles,
and consumer durables. The female celebrities were featured majorly in beauty products.
No distinct association was found between the product categories considered and the
mode used for celebrity portrayal.
The study findings contributed to the academia as well as practitioners. For the academia, the
study identified the most dominant mode of celebrity advertising in India and found that
there was no correspondence between the mode in which a celebrity was portrayed and the
product category endorsed. For the practitioners, the study identified the lesser used modes
of celebrity endorsements which could be used as opportunities.
VIKALPA • VOLUME 35 • NO 4 • OCTOBER - DECEMBER 2010
45
T
he Indian advertising industry, with an estimated
value of INR 13,200 crore, has shown an astonishing growth and creativity in the recent times
(Indian Advertising Industry, 2010). The industry is
growing at an average rate of 10-12 per cent per annum.
Some of the commonly used media for advertising are
TV, radio, websites, newspapers, magazines, and outof-home (OOH). In these media, one of the intriguing
communication tools used for delivering the advertisement message is celebrity endorsement. Celebrity endorsements have become a very prominent strategy for
promoting brands to mass population, grabbing a 24 per
cent share in the total annual marketing budget of a
marketer. For example, a hefty sum of INR 600 crore
(130 million US $) is annually rewarded to a certain celebrity in the form of endorsement fee (Shashidhar, 2008).
If we look back into the history of celebrity endorsements
in India, we find the first instance featuring an Indian
actress in 1929. The trend of celebrity endorsements
boomed, however, in the late 1990s. Generally, film actors and cricketers enjoy the status of a celebrity; Indians love talking about their favourite celebrities and look
up and aspire to be like them. A report by the Federation of Indian Chambers of Commerce and Industry
(FICCI) stated that 60 per cent of the Indian brands used
celebrities in some form in 2008 as compared to 25 per
cent in 2001. Celebrity mania is such that even small
brands with low marketing budget decide on signing
celebrities for endorsement purposes (Shashidhar, 2008).
The phenomenon is consistent with the global trend of
celebrity endorsments. The perceived benefit derived is
to rise above the ad clutter and build an effective marketing communication strategy. Research findings have
indicated that in some countries, 25 to 30 per cent of the
advertisements feature celebrities (Agrawal and
Kamakura, 1995; Choi, Wei-Na and Hee-Jung, 2005).
However, celebrity endorsements involve a large sum
of money and the risk keeps varying with the latest happenings in the professional life of the celebrity (sometimes even personal life). According to the Director of the
College Sports Management, a celebrity management
firm that has managed some top celebrity cricketers in
India, the endorsement fees has a direct relationship with
the performance of the celebrity. Similar thoughts have
been voiced by the COO of Percept Talent Management
who opines that sports celebrities in form can demand
more endorsement fees from the advertisers.
46
REVIEW OF LITERATURE
According to McCracken (1989), a celebrity could be
defined as,
“any individual who enjoys public recognition
and who uses this recognition when they appear
in the advertisement in front of the consumers.”
There are multiple roles that a celebrity spokesperson
may play (and the roles may not be mutually exclusive)
(Kamen, Azhari and Kragh, 1975) in an advertisement
such as that of a spokesperson, endorser, provider of a
testimonial, or an actor. A spokesperson represents the
company or brand like a salesman, while an endorser is
associated with the brand even though he may not be
an expert in the product category of the brand. In case
of testimonials, the superiority of the product is attested
by an individual or the personal experience of the celebrity. Lastly, the celebrity actor is only a character in a
dramatic presentation in the ad.
McCracken (1989) suggested four different modes of
celebrity endorsers namely, Explicit mode, Implicit mode,
Imperative mode, and the Co-present mode. In the explicit
mode, the celebrity announces the endorsement of a
product, while in the implicit mode, the celebrity uses
verbal or physical communication for the product. In
the imperative mode, the celebrity suggests the audience to use the endorsed product while the celebrity only
appears with the product in the co-present mode.
The study of celebrity endorsements in the past 30 years
have centred around two broad themes: source credibility and celebrity-brand congruence. Source credibility
studies focus on the factors defining the credibility of a
celebrity. Credibility of a celebrity has been found to be
a major factor influencing consumer attitudes. Research
has identified three dimensions of source credibility:
attractiveness, expertise, and trustworthiness. Some of
the studies (e.g., Ohanian, 1990) have used all the three
dimensions to develop a scale that can measure credibility. On the other hand, there are studies that have
analysed only one or two dimensions of credibility and
its impact on the consumer (Weiner and Mowen, 1986;
Friedman and Friedman, 1979; Kamins and Gupta, 1994).
However, the findings from these studies have been
quite contradictory. While some studies have found
trustworthiness to be the most important dimension of
source credibility (McGinnies and Ward, 1980; Atkin and
HOW CELEBRITIES ARE USED IN INDIAN TELEVISION COMMERCIALS
Block, 1983 and Kamins, 1989), others have emphasized
attractiveness (Baker and Churchill, 1977; Kahle and
Homer, 1985; Caballero et al., 1989; Silvera and Austad,
2004) or have suggested expertise (Maddux and Rogers,
1980; Swartz, 1984; Ohanian, 1991) to be the most important parameter.
tisement before we start analysing the effectiveness of
celebrity endorsements on the consumers. Given the fact
that the Indian marketplace is experiencing a spurt of
celebrity endorsements, the need becomes all the more
relevant. Thus, we need to analyse the content of celebrity advertisements, particularly in the Indian context.
The celebrity-brand congruence studies have focused on
the similarity between product and celebrity. The congruence theory proposes a match between the celebrity
and the product endorsed to be a necessary condition
for the endorsement to be effective. Several studies on
celebrity brand congruence have been done in the late
90’s (Kamins, 1990; Misra and Beatty, 1990; Kamins and
Gupta, 1994; Mittelstaedt, Riesz and Burns, 2000).
However, even in congruence studies, there have been
contradictions. In a study by Speck, Schumann and
Thompson (1988), a celebrity who was incongruent with
the product endorsed was found to have the same impact on the advertising recall as the celebrity who was
congruent with the product. In another study on advertisements in sports, Jones and Schumann (2000) observed
female celebrities endorsing products used by males,
which went against the congruence theory. In a different view from both the source credibility and the congruence theories, McCracken (1989) proposed the
Meaning Transfer Model to explain the phenomenon of
celebrity endorsements. He suggested that there is a
transfer of meaning from the celebrity to the product
endorsed and eventually to the consumer through its
consumption. According to McCracken, celebrities portray a set of meanings for the consumers which moves
to the products they endorse through advertisements.
The broad aim of the proposed study is to analyse the
nature of celebrity endorsements in Indian Television
Commercials (TVCs). The main focus however will be
on the mode in which the celebrity is used in an advertisement as suggested by McCracken (1989), namely, the
Explicit Mode, Implicit Mode, Imperative Mode, and Copresent Mode. Both Kamen, Azhari and Kragh (1975) and
McCracken (1989) have not given any indication about
which mode of celebrity portrayal should be used in
which product category. However, it would be interesting to find out whether there is any dominant mode of
celebrity portrayal in celebrity advertising. Thus, the
second objective of the study is to check for correspondence between the product category and the modes in
which a celebrity is used. Lastly, to add to the findings
of Jones and Schumann (2000), there is a need to identify the relation (if any) between the nature of the product category and the celebrity occupation and gender.
Thus, the third objective of the study is to look for the
relationship between celebrity gender and occupation
and product category endorsed.
Literature Gap and Study Objectives
If we scan the celebrity endorsement literature over the
last thirty years, we find that very few studies have tried
to analyse the content of celebrity advertisements. A
study conducted by Pringle and Binet (2005) suggested
that celebrities could be used in different forms like a
customer, placement, testimonial, owner, employee, and
sponsor. In a content analysis of athlete endorsers for
sports advertising (Jones and Schumann, 2000), male
athletes were found to endorse female-oriented products which were not related to sports. Even the advertisement message was missing in certain portions of the
advertisement. This implies that there is a need to understand the way a celebrity is portrayed in an adverVIKALPA • VOLUME 35 • NO 4 • OCTOBER - DECEMBER 2010
METHODOLOGY
Since the nature of the study here was to explore communication material, content analysis was the selected
methodology to fulfill the first objective. Content analysis has been applied in analysing communication message without the researcher’s interpretation (Kassarjian,
1977). TVCs were selected as the study variable. To fulfill
the second and third objectives, cross-tabulated frequency tables were used.
Data Collection and Sample Characteristics
Television commercials were downloaded from
www.youtube.com, which contains a large collection of
advertisements. The earliest ad available was from the
year 1995. Thus, a list of all those celebrities who endorsed products between 1995 and 2007 was prepared
and as per the list, the advertisements were downloaded.
The selection criterion was that an advertisement should
have the celebrity present in any of the four modes sug-
47
gested by McCracken (1989). This resulted in a set of
558 unique television commercials featuring celebrities.
Since the unit of analysis was a single celebrity, the ads
with multiple celebrities were excluded. A total of 56
celebrities were identified from the TVCs who were
found to endorse products ranging from soft drinks to
cars (Appendix 1). The preliminary analysis consisted
of a descriptive study of the ads and the celebrities portrayed in them.
The Indian cricket legend Sachin Tendulkar was the most
featured celebrity with 57 ads followed by actors
Amitabh Bachchan and Shahrukh Khan with 46 and 44
ads respectively. A total of 17 celebrities were found to
have more than 10 ads to their credit (Appendix 1).
Coding
The coding was based on McCracken’s (1989) four modes
of the presence of a celebrity in an advertisement: Explicit, Implicit, Imperative, and Co-present. Each ad was
viewed several times to capture the mode of portrayal
of the celebrity in the ad and coded independently by
two coders. The results thus obtained were compared
across the two coders’ output to ensure reliability
(Kassarjian, 1977). Thus the codes categorized the ads
into four categories.
Before analysing the correspondence between the mode
of presence of a celebrity and the product category, a
round of data filtering was performed. Only those product categories/groups, which had a more than 5 per cent
presence in the total dataset, were retained in the sample. This was done to reduce the number of categories
with very small frequencies since that would have created disturbances in the analysis. Six categories (out of
a total of 32) were retained namely, food and beverages,
automobiles, beauty products, consumer durables, hair
care, and fashion. The total number of ads to be analysed was reduced to 363 (65.05% of total ads) (Refer to
Table 2 for descriptive statistics).
Table 1: Modes of Celebrity Portrayal in TVC
Celebrity Mode
Frequency
%
Implicit
356
63.8
Imperative
115
20.6
Co-present
81
14.5
6
1.1
558
100
Explicit
Total
Table 2: Frequency Distribution of Ads by Product
Category in TVC
Product Category
No. of Ads
%
161
44.4
Automobiles
51
14.0
Beauty Products
43
11.8
Consumer Durables
43
11.8
Food and Beverages
Once the coding was over, the results of the two coders
were compared. The inter-coder reliability was calculated using Holsti method and was found to be 0.9014.
It was observed that in most cases, there was complete
agreement between the two coders. There were a few
discrepancies which were resolved after detailed investigation of the ads and involvement of a third party observer, resulting in inter-coder agreement. To further
ensure reliability, twenty-five ads were randomly selected from the sample and shown independently to
three neutral observers and their opinion about the mode
of the celebrity presence was noted. The observers’ view
differed from that of the coders only in six out of the 75
ads shown (twenty-five each to the observers), thereby
ensuring external validity.
RESULTS
A frequency analysis of the modes of celebrity portrayal
in an ad showed the Implicit Mode to be the most frequent mode with 356 ads out of 558 (63.8%) as shown in
Table 1, followed by the Imperative Mode.
48
Hair Care
35
9.6
Fashion
30
8.3
363
100.0
Total
From the results, it was evident that there was no clear
correspondence between the product categories and the
mode of celebrity presence in the ads of those products.
Majority of the celebrities were being portrayed in the
Implicit Mode across all product categories (Refer to Table 3).
Two cross-tabulated frequency charts gave an indication of the nature of correspondence between the celebrity type and the product category. The first one tried to
find out the relation (if any) between the occupation of
the celebrity and the product category endorsed. There
were three categories of celebrity occupation, namely,
film industry, sports, and others. From the cross-tabulated results, it was evident that in all the major product
HOW CELEBRITIES ARE USED IN INDIAN TELEVISION COMMERCIALS
Table 3: Cross Tabulated Frequency Distribution (Celebrity Mode vs. Product Category)
CELEBRITY MODE
PRODUCT CATEGORY
Food and
Beverages
Beauty Products
and Cosmetics
Automobiles
Fashion
Consumer
Durables
Hair
Care
Total
Explicit
1
1
1
0
1
0
4
Implicit
121
27
39
27
28
22
264
Imperative
24
10
6
2
3
6
51
Co-present
15
15
5
1
11
7
44
161
43
51
30
43
35
363
Hair
Care
Total
Total
Table 4: Cross Tabulated Frequency Distribution (Celebrity Occupation vs. Product Category)
CELEBRITY
OCCUPATION
PRODUCT CATEGORY
Food and
Beverages
Beauty Products
and Cosmetics
Automobiles
Fashion
118
42
34
28
25
31
278
Sports
39
1
17
2
18
4
81
Others
4
0
0
0
0
0
4
161
43
51
30
43
35
363
Hair
Care
Total
231
Film Industry
Total
Consumer
Durables
Table 5: Cross Tabulated Frequency Distribution (Celebrity Gender vs Product category)
CELEBRITY
GENDER
Male
Female
Total
PRODUCT CATEGORY
Food and
Beverages
Beauty Products
and Cosmetics
Automobiles
Fashion
122
10
39
14
32
14
39
33
12
16
11
21
132
161
43
51
30
43
35
363
categories, film celebrities were more extensively used
than sports celebrities (Refer to Table 4). However, observing the sports celebrities in isolation, food and beverages was the major product category to use them. And
among all the ads in the product category, sports goods
were found to be endorsed by sports celebrities. The
second relation (if any) was between the gender of the
celebrity and the product category endorsed. Male celebrities were found to dominate in the food and beverage, automobile, and consumer durables while female
celebrities dominated in the rest of the categories (Refer
to Table 5).
DISCUSSION
The content analysis revealed that most of the ads using
celebrity endorsers were of the implicit (suggestive) nature. This may imply that a popular celebrity in the Implicit Mode could be used effectively by a brand, a very
important determinant of which may be culture. Indian
culture, because of its high context nature (Hofstede,
2001), relies more on subtle non-verbal communication
VIKALPA • VOLUME 35 • NO 4 • OCTOBER - DECEMBER 2010
Consumer
Durables
rather than its explicit nature of communication. This
also supports Choi, Wei-Na and Hee-Jung (2005), who
found Korean celebrity advertisements to be of more
implicit nature. The endorsements of food and beverage products by sports celebrities support the celebrityproduct congruence theory (Kamins, 1990). Most of the
products endorsed by sports persons in the food and
beverages category were energy or health drinks. The
sportsmen/women were perceived as experts in that
category, which was one of the requirements for successful endorsements (Peetz, Parks and Spencer, 2004;
Biswas, Biswas and Das, 2006). Lastly, the use of female
celebrities for beauty products supported the role of attractiveness to increase credibility of the endorsement.
Literature suggests that an attractive celebrity is expected
to be more effective in case of a product which enhances
attractiveness (Kamins, 1990; Till and Busler, 1998; Bower
and Landreth, 2001). Thus the study supported the two
main streams of research in celebrity endorsements. The
major presence of the Implicit Mode indicates the fact that
the advertisers want to use the credibility of the celeb-
49
rity to get through to the consumer. The only difference
between the Indian and Western markets is regarding
their cultural contexts. The study also supported the congruence theory since most sports celebrities were found
to endorse sports brands and female celebrities were
found to endorse products made for women. The fact
that most sports products were endorsed by sports celebrities also reflected support for McCracken’s (1989)
Meaning Transfer Model. Most celebrities have an image and in case a sports celebrity is endorsing an energy
drink, he/she is supposed to transfer the concept of energy that he/she represents to the product and thereby
to the consumers through consumption.
IMPLICATIONS
This study, trying to identify the nature of celebrity portrayal in television advertisements, is one of its kind in
India. Most of the advertisements in the Indian scenario
were found to be in the Implicit Mode, i.e., where the celebrity indirectly suggested the consumer to use a particular product or brand. One of the reasons behind this
could be the cultural context of India. The second reason could be due to the media. The Implicit Mode may be
ideal for television advertisements since many a time,
the celebrity plays the role of a character in the ad which
is like a story. However, this could be harmful in case
the celebrity faced any public controversy or did not
excel in his own domain. For example, a particular cricketer could not score runs in the real match while the ad
shows him scoring a lot of runs. For the practitioner,
this may be an opportunity wherein the celebrity can be
portrayed in a different mode and given an opportunity to rise above the clutter. However, since the time
involvement of the viewer is low for a TVC, using the
celebrities in other modes may not be worth it since the
consumers will not remember the speech/testimonial
given by the celebrity. Thus, while dealing with celebrities, the practitioners can consider these aspects and
develop ads accordingly. A content analysis is not a
causal or predictive methodology. However, the analysis of the nature of the communication brings out how
content is represented besides determining the patterns
of communication.
Three major implications of the study could thus be summarized as follows. First, the study supported the existing literature in celebrity endorsements. Second, the
study found the dominant mode of celebrity portrayal
50
in Indian markets and tried to find the reason behind it.
Lastly, the study also acted as an eye-opener for the industry since the industry could take a cue from the findings and try to use celebrities in different modes in
advertisements.
LIMITATIONS AND SCOPE FOR
FUTURE RESEARCH
One of the limitations of this study was the restriction
to national celebrities. Such studies could be conducted
at regional levels to understand the nature of celebrity
portrayals in ads at regional levels. Further, research
could be conducted to look at the impact of the celebrity
endorsements on sales of the products. This could take
the form of a panel data analysis, but would be a worthwhile study as it would then answer the real question
being asked about the impact of celebrity endorsements.
A cross-country analysis involving countries with different cultural contexts may be an interesting addition
to this study. It would be worth looking into whether
the dominant mode of celebrity portrayal is different in
the high and low cultural contexts.
Appendix 1: List of Celebrity Appearing in
Different Advertisements
Celebrity
Frequency
Sachin Tendulkar
57
Amitabh Bachchan
46
Shahrukh Khan
44
Saif Ali Khan
38
Aishwarya Rai
29
Rani Mukherjee
21
Hrithik Roshan
20
Kajol
20
Rahul Dravid
19
Preity Zinta
18
John Abraham
16
Saurav Ganguly
16
Mahendra Shingh Dhoni
14
Aamir Khan
13
Sania Mirza
11
Abhishek Bachchan
11
Ajay Devgan
11
Kareena Kapoor
10
Kapil Dev
9
Boman Irani
8
Ajay Jadeja
8
Priyanka Chopra
8
Bipasha Basu
7
%
10.22
8.24
7.89
6.81
5.20
3.76
3.58
3.58
3.41
3.23
2.87
2.87
2.51
2.33
1.97
1.97
1.97
1.79
1.61
1.43
1.43
1.43
1.25
Cumulative %
10.22
18.46
26.35
33.16
38.36
42.12
45.70
49.28
52.69
55.92
58.79
61.66
64.17
66.50
68.47
70.44
72.41
74.20
75.81
77.24
78.67
80.10
81.35
HOW CELEBRITIES ARE USED IN INDIAN TELEVISION COMMERCIALS
Appendix 1 (contd.)
Celebrity
Govinda
Sushmita Sen
Tabu
Anil Kumble
Paresh Rawal
Rahul Khanna
Salman Khan
Sunny Deol
Sonali Bendre
Irfan Khan
Karishma Kapoor
Zakir Hussain
Lara Dutta
Anupam Kher
Shahid Kapoor
Madhavan
Fardeen Khan
Frequency
7
7
7
6
6
5
5
5
5
4
4
4
4
3
3
3
2
%
1.25
1.25
1.25
1.08
1.08
0.90
0.90
0.90
0.90
0.72
0.72
0.72
0.72
0.54
0.54
0.54
0.36
Cumulative %
82.60
83.85
85.10
86.18
87.26
88.16
89.06
89.96
90.86
91.58
92.30
93.02
93.74
94.28
94.82
95.36
95.72
Appendix 1 (contd.)
Celebrity
Raveena Tandon
Jackie Shroff
Harsha Bhogle
Milind Soman
Neha Dhupia
Diana Hayden
Diya Mirza
Mahima Chaudhary
Amisha Patel
Chetan Hansraj
Pankaj Kapoor
Aman Verma
Robin Singh
Shilpa Shetty
Urmila
Hema Malini
Total
Frequency
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
558
%
0.36
0.36
0.36
0.36
0.36
0.36
0.36
0.36
0.18
0.18
0.18
0.18
0.18
0.18
0.18
0.18
100.00
Cumulative %
96.08
96.44
96.80
97.16
97.52
97.88
97.24
98.60
98.78
98.96
99.14
99.32
99.50
99.68
99.86
100.00
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Varsha Jain is a Research Fellow and the Division Head of
integrated mareting communication at the Mudra Institute of
Communications Research in Ahmedabad. She has taken her
Ph.D in advertising and MBA in marketing stream. Prior to
MICORE, she worked with ICFAI, Indore, where she won
awards in teaching, research, and student supervision. Her
research area is in integrated marketing communication. She
has presented her research at international and national conferences like AMIC (Singapore), IMT Ghaziabad, IBS,
Hyderabad, etc. In these conferences, her papers were among
the best papers and some papers were published by the conference organizers in the journals or books. Her research findings are published in national and international journals and
in leading newspapers like The Times of India and The Economic
Times. She regularly contributes articles on current issues in
marketing to national magazines.
Aarzoo Daswani is a Research Associate, Department of Integrated Marketing Communication (IMC) at Mudra Institute
of Communication Research (MICORE), Ahmedabad, India.
She holds a Bachelors Degree in Information Technology from
K S School of Business Management, and Post-Graduate Diploma in Marketing from the Som Lalit Institute of Business
Management, Ahmedabad, India. Prior to this position, she
worked as an Academic Associate, Department of Marketing,
Indian Institute of Management, Ahmedabad (IIMA) for a span
of six months. Her research interests include advertising communication and consumption pattern.
e-mail: [email protected]
Subhadip Roy is an Assistant Professor at the ICFAI Business
School. He is also a Ph.D from the ICFAI University, Dehradun,
India. His research interests are in the areas of brand management, advertising, and market research. He has presented papers in various national and international conferences, such
as at the Indian Institute of Management, Ahmedabad, Decision Sciences Institute (DSI) Annual Conference, Association
of International Business (AIB), etc. He has also published articles and research papers in national and international journals.
e-mail: [email protected]
Mari Sudha is a Research Associate in the Department of Integrated Marketing Communication (IMC) at the Mudra Institute of Communication Research (MICORE), Ahmedabad,
India. She holds a Bachelors and a Masters Degree in Statistics
from St. Xavier’s College, Ahmedabad and School of Sciences,
Ahmedabad, India. Prior to this position, she worked as an
Academic Associate in the Department of Production and
Quantitative Methods (P&QM) and Public Systems Group
(PSG), Indian Institute of Management, Ahmedabad (IIMA)
for a year. Her research interests include operational research,
applied statistics, social network analysis and culture, and advertising communication.
e-mail: [email protected]
e-mail: [email protected]
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HOW CELEBRITIES ARE USED IN INDIAN TELEVISION COMMERCIALS