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University of the West Indies, Cave Hill, Barbados 7th Annual Conference March 29-31, 2006 Sherbourne Conference Centre, Barbados Jezebels, Soca and Dancehall Divas: The Impact of Images of Femininity upon Social Policies and Gender Relationships in the Caribbean By Dr. Annecka Leolyn Marshall University of the West Indies, Jamaica SOCIAL POLICY CHALLENGES IN THE POST-INDEPENDENCE ERA Jezebels, Soca and Dancehall Divas: The Impact of Images of Femininity upon Social Policies and Gender Relationships in the Caribbean By Dr. Annecka Leolyn Marshall University of the West Indies, Jamaica Paper presented at SALISES 7th Annual Conference, Sherbourne Conference Centre, Barbados. 29 – 31 March, 2006 Jezebels, Soca and Dancehall Divas: The Impact of Images of Femininity upon Social Policies and Gender Relationships in the Caribbean Dr. Annecka Leolyn Marshall ABSTRACT The biblical image of Jezebel portrays womanhood as evil, shameless and treacherous. Jezebels are allegedly power hungry, sexually aggressive and immoral. I want to consider the extent that the Jezebel stereotype influences policy interventions as well as partnerships among Caribbean men and women. I debate the implications of challenging tensions in soca and dancehall cultures whereby women are perceived as Jezebels and men as unfaithful and unreliable. I focus on the importance of developing familial and community solidarity that confronts the antagonistic notion of women undermining, marginalizing and emasculating men in the Caribbean region. As policy makers, comrades and lovers improving feminist consciousness and activism around gender relationships is fundamental to social, economic and political emancipation in Caribbean societies. 1 Jezebels, Soca and Dancehall Divas: The Impact of Images of Femininity upon Social Policies and Gender Relationships in the Caribbean Portraying Caribbean women as Jezebels has been central to the ideological justification for systems of racism, sexism, heterosexism and class oppression. This paper explores the ways that the historical development of representations of women as Jezebels has contributed to centuries of subordination that continue in contemporary Caribbean societies. I address the manner that myriad of images of sinful, bestial, diseased and licentious womanhood have been used to legitimize sexual and social exploitation. The institutionalization of myths of sinful hypersexuality constitutes a tool of domination that impedes the socio-economic and political advancement of women in the Caribbean region. The objectification, dehumanization and relegation of Caribbean women as Jezebels impede identities, relationships and social policies. Stereotyped as rampant sexual animals, sensuous, promiscuous, breeders and prostitutes the depiction of the Biblical image of Jezebel is a form of social coercion that undermines the authority of Caribbean women. The controlling image of Jezebel whereby women are deemed as sexually aggressive, immoral, domineering and dirty is an influential stereotype. Constructing womanhood as evil, shameless, treacherous and power hungry has profound implications for social policies, gendered violence, sex tourism and citizenship. The Jezebel myth creates tensions and antagonisms within partnerships among men and women in Caribbean societies. I argue that despite the conflicts that arise from the pervasiveness of the Jezebel icon Caribbean women affirm alternative self definitions that defy prevalent racialised sexual stereotypes. Caribbean women assert their right to reclaim self awareness, beauty and status in their individual lifestyles as well as within soca and dancehall cultures. Caribbean women negotiate their own self concepts, sexuality and relationships to be independent, successful and passionate. As 2 survivors of the Jezebel mythology women in the Caribbean develop the self esteem, love and respect that is necessary to be responsible, confident and assertive. WHO IS JEZEBEL? The portrayal of Jezebel whore originated in the Bible, was reinforced during slavery and persists today since Black women are largely viewed as hypersexual commodities. The most infamous Jezebel was the wife of King Ahab of Israel. In 9th century B.C. Jezebel was the chief priestess of the false God Baal of Maleka. As a ruthless queen she introduced vile idol worship and human sacrifice. Jezebel was a spiritually dead woman who was against God. She suppressed faith by persecuting and ordering the death of the prophets of Jehova h. The Jezebel image is relevant to contemporary Caribbean societies because the depiction of horrendous and evil femininity run amok still persists. The Biblical Jezebel promoted ungodliness, paganism and sexual immorality. Jezebel was shameless, adulterous and unrepentant of her sin (Old Testament: 1st Kings 18 and 19, New Testament: 2nd Kings 9 and Revelations 2). Historically Black women have been portrayed as innately promiscuous and predatory Jezebels. The demeaning Jezebel stereotype was used during slavery as a rationalization for the sexual exploitation of Black women (Collins, 1990). Under enslavement Black women were defined as animalistic, evil and diseased. The icon of the sexually denigrated Black female not only effectively legitimated the maximum exploitation of her reproductive labour but also exonerated white men who abused her from guilt. The rearticulation of this history of racialized sexual subordination contributes to the inferior socio-economic and political position of women in the Caribbean region. The representation of Jezebel in Caribbean societies today reproduces myths that have existed since the sixteenth century. Viewed as lascivious and alluring slave women were charged with beguiling and tempting their white slave masters (hooks, 1982). Since enslavement the cultural definition of lewd, worldly and ‘loose’ women who use their ‘feminine wiles’ to deceive men has been used against Black womanhood. Seen as willing, uninhibited and predatory 3 sexual deviants the raw image of sexual seductress with insatiable sexual appetites has hindered feminist consciousness and activism. It is important to reject the idea of exotic women who undermine, marginalize and emasculate men in order to develop unity within families and local communities. Progressive and constructive dialogue entails reeducation and mass based mobilization around gender identities and relationships. We need to re-examine the Jezebel myth as part of coalition strategies that promote gender equality within the context of effective national struggles for socio-economic and political progress. Eradicating the influence of the racist, sexist, heterosexist and elitist Jezebel image will empower women to change social policies for the emancipation of Caribbean societies. This paper queries how we can change the Jezebel image that denigrates Caribbean women. I argue that it is imperative that we develop strategies to overcome postcolonial, religious, middle class, lesbophobic and male dominated constructions of Caribbean female identities. Derogatory images of Jezebels that were perpetuated during slavery to rationalize exploitation and the objectification of Black women’s bodies are still relevant (Marshall, 1996). Modern Jezebels cause similar tribulation as women who are regarded as being greedy, crafty and anti- men. The name Jezebel signifies a sexually perverse, cruel and deceitful woman. The wickedness and murdering jealousy of the original Jezebel was punished by dogs who devoured her flesh which was then trampled by horses. Current day depictions of Jezebels are destructive because cultural misperceptions contribute to uncritical acceptance of the tendency of the male marginalization thesis to blame women for socio-economic barriers to male progress (Barriteau, 2003). According to bell hooks the portrayal of Black women as innately sinful, bitchy and treacherous circumscribes self perceptions and relationships. hooks explains that the icon of assertive, willful and tough womanhood is hated as a threat to masculinity; “…Christian mythology depicted woman as the source of sin and evil; racist-sexist mythology simply designated black women the epitome of female evil and sinfulness. White men could justify their dehumanization and sexual exploitation of black women by arguing that they possessed 4 inherent evil demonic qualities. Black men could claim that they could not get along with black women because they were so evil. And white women could use the image of the evil sinful black woman to emphasize their own innocence and purity. Like the biblical figure Eve, black women became the scapegoats for misogynist men and racist women who needed to see some group of women as the embodiment of female evil.” (hooks, 1982: 85) HARLOTS IN SOCA AND DANCEHALL The Jezebel image has served to justify centuries of racial, sexual and class oppression that are reflected in popular culture. The depiction of Caribbean women as promiscuous, prostitutes and libidinous is evident in soca and dancehall scenes. I will consider the extent that the myth of oversexed sensuous temptresses who bewitch, mesmerize and emasculate men is confronted by women in the Caribbean. Being objectified as immoral and deviant sexual animals is a source of both suppression and liberation. Images of hypersexual degeneration pathologize, dehumanize and victimize Caribbean women. The portrayal of Caribbean women as abnormal, diseased, dirty and predatory controls gender and sexual identities to a large extent (Marshall, 1996). Soca and dancehall lyrics perpetuate notions about evil, sensuous and animalistic breeders who are perceived as a potentially dangerous threat to Caribbean manhood. Soca divas and dancehall queens are portrayed as depraved sexual deviants and aggressive seducers. Donna Hope examines “femmephobia” in dancehall culture whereby women are portrayed as undermining male power and privilege. Violently misogynistic lyrics depict women as prostitutes who cheat on their male partners, weaken and betray them. Innercity and working class Black men who are unable to attain the traditional attributes of manhood gain status by boasting machismo. Songs assert aggressive male sexual prowess and excessive male virility in ways that are hostile to women. Dancehall music perpetuates male bravado, stamina and sexual conq uest to the detriment of women. The policing of heterosexual male meanings and boundaries demean and degrade women to mere body parts. Female denigration and objectification reduce women to sexual commodities (Hope, 2005). 5 The ritualistic engagement in the prevailing construction of sexual identities in the dancehall regulates the attitudes and behaviour of men and women in wider Jamaican society. The patriarchal structure and heterosexist bias of Jamaican society privileges male heterosexuality. Aggressive anti- male homosexual paranoia of heterosexual men is legitimated by violent, inflammatory and condemnatory lyrics that expound intolerance and contempt of gay men. Donna Hope explains that homosexuality threatens patriarchal control of women and fragile male identities. Insecure heterosexual men regard gay men as traitors who sabotage notions of true manhood, hypermasculinity, brute strength and domination over women. To compensate for this fear gay men are chastised as powerless, effeminate, emasculated and sexually submissive (Hope, 2005). The feminization of ‘slackness’ embraces and flaunts sexuality in a brazen manner that often combats the denigration of Caribbean womanhood. The creation of woman identified self concepts that oppose patriarchal constructions of Caribbean femininity is shown by the demands of Alison Hinds for sexual independence and respect. Proclaiming positive sexual appeal Alison Hinds encourages women to ‘misbehave and don’t be afraid’. Calls for ‘rude gal wine’ that beckon women to ‘bring your badness and come’ resist male domination. Alison Hinds controls men in stage performances to ‘make the men dem surrender’ and ‘women run border’. Female DJs such as Tanya Stevens, Lady Saw and Cecile embrace the power of sexuality as a forceful weapon to wield against men. Removing taboos about self pleasuring sensuality female DJs celebrate women’s need for sexual liberation. The exploration and expression of emancipating sexual agency is highlighted by Carolyn Cooper. The dancehall is a ‘carnivalesque’ space that subverts subjugating expectations about femininity (Cooper, 2004) Women in dancehall cultures reclaim independent sexual prowess and erotically rebellious roles that are restricted by prevailing social conventions. Enjoying socio-sexual freedom to define self concepts and change relationships women meet their desires for satisfaction and survival. Women disrupt repressive patriarchal, postcolonial, middle class and religious ideas about sexual depravity that undermine their authority. Reasserting progressive control of their 6 identities and bodies female DJs and revelers challenge and subvert conventional beliefs about female respectability. Redefining notions of sexually lewd, corrupt and vulgar working class culture female ‘slackness’ is an oppositional stance that defies conservative and male dominated standards of decency and piety. Carolyn Cooper contends; “Arguing transgressively for the freedom of women to claim a selfpleasuring sexual identity that may even be explicitly homoerotic, I propose that Jamaican dancehall culture at home and in the diaspora is best understood as a potentially liberating space in which working-class women and their more timid middle-class sisters assert the freedom to play out eroticized roles that may not ordinarily be available to them in the rigid social conventions of the everyday. The dancehall, thus conceived, is an erogenous zone in which the celebration of female sexuality and fertility is ritualized.” (Cooper, 2004: 17) The persisting effect of the Jezebel myth upon Caribbean women’s self-perceptions and interactions is important. The creation of new self-perceptions enables Caribbean women to oppose being castigated as animalistic, dirty and licentious. However when the ways in which stereotypes of rampant sexuality are discussed this is usually subject to heterosexist bias. There is a tendency for debates around female sexuality to deny or subsume the priorities of lesbians and bisexual women. It is vital to challenge the institutionalizatio n of heterosexism and homophobia. Self actualization whereby women control their sexuality necessitates addressing the extent that heterosexuality is socially imposed by racialized images. Challenging the marginalization of Caribbean women as sexual animals is central to the development of Caribbean femininity. Resisting the derogatory Jezebel mythology that distorts Caribbean womanhood and renders invisible the multiplicity of female identities helps to counteract the burden of racist sexual stereotypes. Recognition of the origins of the Jezebel image combined with an acute understanding of why it continues to exist will support Caribbean women to surpass stereotypes. The 7 pervasiveness of the Jezebel myth contributes to the subordination of women in the Caribbean region. Confronting negative images of Caribbean femininity in art, social services, education, employment, housing and the legal system is an ongoing fight. We need to explore Caribbean women’s own diverse self definitions so that rather than being a contradictory source of empowerment that both confirms and refutes the stereotype new models of subjectivity are expressed. According to bell hooks it is essential to query; “How do we create an oppositional worldview, a consciousness, an identity, a standpoint that exists not only as that struggle which also opposes dehumanization but as that movement which enables creative, expansive self-actualization? Opposition is not enough. In that vacant space after one has resisted there is still the tendency to become – to make oneself anew.” (hooks, 1991: 15) Grasping exciting possibilities for self representation and affirmation can be enhanced by increased dialogue about effective strategies for Caribbean women to overcome heterosexism. Homophobia leads to the invisibility, erasure, silence, distortion and repression of the specific identities and experiences of lesbian and bisexual women. Stigmatized as enemies of Caribbean cultures, deviant and sinful sexual ‘minorities’ dominant assumptions about fe mininity must be challenged. It is necessary to refute patriarchal and heterosexist structures that render lesbians and bisexual women socially unacceptable and indiscernible. Opposing regressive attitudes that subordinate women who are not heterosexual is potentially liberating for all women. Seriously tackling patriarchy and homophobia can only achieve gender equality when heterosexual supremacy and privilege are rejected. EVIL RELATIONSHIPS? Women’s ability to manipulate male supremacist power and control in relationships is restricted by the profound impact of Jezebel imagery about evil, strength and aggression. The acceptance of racist and heterosexist stereotypes of women as Jezebels and men as studs is detrimental to intimate relationships in Caribbean societies. The ideals of being a 8 man are premised on power, control and authority. The breadwinner role determines the social attributes of manhood so that failure to excel in it negatively influences the psyche of Caribbean men. The awareness that they are unable to achieve employment aspirations to prove their manliness propels many men to dominate the sexual domain. R.W. Connell asserts that rampant sexuality and strength often replaces the work ethic as a main trait of male identity; “The reaction of the ‘failed’ is likely to be a claim to other sources of power, even other definitions of masculinity. Sporting prowess, physical aggression or sexual conquest may do.” (Connell quoted in Ghail, 1994: 295). Janet Brown and Barry Chevannes explain that the social construction of male sexuality in the Caribbean region is premised on heterosexual virility. Men embrace societal values that they should have several female sexual partners and children. There is immense pride in the notion that the heterosexua l prowess of Black men is superior to that of males from other racial and ethnic backgrounds. In general monogamy and fidelity are perceived as signs of male weakness. There is great social pressure to live up to both personal and cultural beliefs that men must be virile and unfaithful. Janet Brown and Barry Chevannes explain that; “Manhood is demonstrated by sexual prowess. It is usually measured by the number of serial or concurrent female sexual partners. A secondary ‘proof’ of manhood is the number of children which results from this prowess, whether in or outside of steady relationships…Manhood therefore clearly involves sexual activities with women. The sooner manhood is established, the better for a young male’s self- image and the sooner parents can stop worrying about this aspect of their son’s maturation. Therefore, sexual activity for boys begins early, with the discreet knowledge of parents, and sometimes the encouragement of fathers.” (Brown and Chevannes, 1998: 23) 9 Janet Brown and Barry Chevannes maintain that homophobic beliefs are central aspects of Caribbean masculinity. Boys are expected to be sexually active and to have many female partners to prove that they are not gay; “Fears and disgust of homosexuality were commonly expressed, particularly in the Jamaican communities. Many parents believed that certain child-rearing practices or child behaviours could lead to this ‘deviance’. A small measure of tolerance was expressed only in terms of suspected genetic make- up which could not be prevented or cured.” (Brown and Chevannes, 1998: 23) Fear of homosexuals, lesbians and bisexuals limits sexual desires and experiences by preventing the full realization of erotica. Michael Kimmel states that homophobia is an informally imposed social mechanism that allows men to regulate each other. The institutionalization of the irrational fear of gay men is a form of surveillance that sanctions against open displays of same-sex attraction. Such policing disciplines men to adhere to conventional prescriptions of acceptable masculine traits to demonstrate that they are not homosexuals. Men are afraid that other men may regard them as failing to match hegemonic standards of manhood (Kimmel, 1996). Attempting to negate the threat that they are suspected of being gay men repress their sexual identities and restrict sexual expression. Kimmel argues that; “…Homophobia is the fear that other men will unmask us, emasculate us, reveal to us and the world that we do not measure up, that we are not real men. And we are afraid to let other men see that fear. Fear makes us ashamed, because the recognition of fear in ourselves is proof to ourselves that we are not as manly as we pretend…” (Kimmel, 1996: 19) Anti- gay sentiments control the attitudes and behaviour of boys and men. Maintaining the authority and privileges of allegedly heterosexual men homophobia also contributes to hidden double sexual lifestyles. J.L. King asserts that the taboo of being homosexual in 10 homophobic Black communities leads to men living on the ‘down low’. Cultural constraints, religious conservatism and unhealthy ideas about rampant heterosexuality make Black men scared to reveal their homoerotic desires. Black men have sex with other men but do not identify themselves as being gay. Instead they live an illusory public appearance of straightness that puts unsuspecting female partners at risk of sexual diseases. J. L. King maintains that socially responsible and financially successful Black men engage in a secret subculture of down low brothers. Blatant homophobia coerces Black men to lead an invisible world of having sex on the down low (King, 2005). Hiding their sexual pleasure with other men Black men display denial, lies, deceit and dishonesty. In the Caribbean region it is significant to query the extent that unreasonable hatred of homosexuality is a means for both men and women to deal with repressed same sex orientation. The institutionalization of violent homophobia and lesbophobia inhibits the multiplicity of male and female identities so that interpersonal relationships are circumscribed. Conflicting experiences of manhood and womanhood are due to tensions between perceived power and powerlessness over women and other men. As Jezebels women are defined as being dangerous to men and characterized as promiscuous, sexually perverse and cheating on their male partners. The Jezebel myth contributes to hostile and antagonistic relationships that are based on love, mistrust and anger. Competition between women and men for social and sexual power is frequently due to Caribbean women internalizing restrictive ideas about masculinities and femininities. Seeing men in terms of infidelity, irresponsibility and sexual virility women often fear that men are having relationships with other women. Whilst Caribbean women resist dominant images about their female identities to recreate forceful self perceptions and relationships stereotypes about men’s sexual prowess are often believed. Caribbean women set their own agendas and confront men’s efforts to cont rol them. Negating the Jezebel image women assert sexual autonomy to determine their own sexual self concepts and realities. Regaining self dignity by using their own bodies and sexualities to meet their requirements entails the subversion of loving power 11 relationships. Refuting stereotypes about heterosexual, gay, lesbian and bisexual relationships is essential to exploring alternative meanings of sexuality. This is integral to enhancing equal sexual partnerships, commitment to monogamous relationships and family responsibility. INSTITUTIONALIZED JEZEBELS IN SOCIAL POLICIES Patricia Hill Collins explains that the controlling myth of Jezebel is institutionalized in social arenas such as the mass media, social services and workplaces. The depiction of Jezebels is used by men to control female sexuality. By pathologizing Black women as being prone to prostitution they are rejected in terms of ideals of traditional womanhood. Those who are labeled as prostitutes are criminalized as ‘fallen’ women who are despised and abused as a corruptive threat to society. Moral panics about Jezebels lead to discriminatory practices that exclude women from State resources. Women are exploited by legislation, statutory frameworks and policy makers viewing them as subordinate sex objects (Collins, 1990). The mythical image of Jezebel reinforces gender biases in the justice system and the inferior treatment of women in Caribbean societies. The unfair treatment of Caribbean women in the law is a consequence of devaluation by the Jezebel myth. The inscription of the distorted depiction of Jezebel as the embodiment of womanhood into Caribbean jurisprudence is evident. Gender bias in customs, beliefs, traditions, law and litigation is linked to the myth of promiscuous temptress. The role of prostitute contributes to the denial of women’s equal rights as citizens. Cultural and self concepts maintain oppositional notions that compare ‘good’ versus ‘bad’ women. The former category of female identity is characterized by respectability, decency, domestic roles, moral purity, chastity until marriage and monogamy. Black women are castigated in terms of promiscuity, perverse and aggressive hypersexuality. Patricia Hill Collins maintains that the image of Jezebel is used as a yardstick to measure ‘normal’, ‘natural’, ‘true’ and ‘real’ womanhood. Collins argues that Black women challenge the Jezebel image of sexually degenerate animal, disease and deviance that is used to justify demeaning treatment and misogynistic violence (Collins, 1990). 12 Kemala Kempadoo explains that exoticism in sex tourism industries legitimates racist and patriarchal domination. Kemala Kempadoo asserts that racialist and sexist state control of sex industries sustains Western identities, hegemonic masculine power and exploitative class relations in the sex tourism industry. Tourism-oriented prostitution in the Caribbean serves the escapist fantasies of clients. Satisftying their racialized desires for sexual pleasure reaffirms dangerous power relations that are based upon myths of a foreign, primitive, barbarous and ‘exotic other’. Ideologies of erotic, primitive and corrupt womanhood reaffirm the power of Western tourists. Prostitutes are vulnerable to coercive slavery-like conditions of debt bondage that violate their human rights. The organized activism of the worldwide sex workers movement challenges the shameful ‘whore stigma’ by demanding respect for social justice, improved working conditions and health care of prostitutes (Kempadoo, 2003.) Institutionalized patria rchy, hegemonic masculinity and homophobia within Caribbean nation states reinforce pressure to conform to heterosexist ideals of womanhood. Women who do not accept the doctrines of female submission, compulsory heterosexuality and the nuclear family encounter social ostracism and isolation. The law defines citizens as primarily male and heterosexual. Legislation perpetuates oppressive sanctions against same-sex desire which is castigated as perverse, corrupt, diseased and destructive and contributes to the policing of the female body. Patriarchal and heterosexist governments and state institutions criminalize, discriminate against and punish lesbians, gay men and prostitutes for not adopting the traditional norms of appropriate sexual behaviour (Alexander, 1997). As such women are disciplined to meet the Christian characteristics of faithful wife and good mother. The integration of gender sensitive initiatives into governments, NGOs and the private sector are necessary to challenge cultural expectations about appropriate female and heterosexual conduct in Caribbean popular culture, public opinion, religion, science, medicine, social policies and politics that reinforce male power and privilege (Atluri, 2001). The equal participation of men and women in community oriented training schemes and research programmes is pivotal for achieving gender equality. The transformation of 13 ruling power ideologies and practices that are legitimated by the Jezebel image must tackle racism, sexism, heterosexism and class oppression. Raising awareness about the prevalence of the Jezebel myth includes constructive dialogue and re-education. Personal and collective consciousness at grassroots levels is connected to enhancing the services of various agencies. It is crucial that policy makers, employers, trade unions, educational institutions, the mass media, statutory and voluntary groups debunk the Jezebel icon in regional, national and international policies for gender reforms. Through advocacy and lobbying Caribbean women reconstruct the defiance of diverse sexual identities and experiences. In personal relationships and popular culture women refute and surpass confining frameworks that romanticize, exorcise and misapprehend them in Caribbean societies. CLOSURE The Biblical imagery of Jezebel is used to refer to womanhood as sinful, prone to prostitution, dominant and domineering. This she-devil myth is a scapegoat that damages perceptions of Caribbean women within intimate relationships, social, economic and political policies. Resolving the divisive contradictions of Caribbean women’s self perceptions and realities is essential to minimizing power struggles. The devaluation of Caribbean women is a form of social control that is demonstrated in gender biased social policy interventions. The prominent role as key figures in Caribbean families and communities reinforces the manner that women are wrongly cast as fallen females who are wicked. Feminist solidarity with pro- feminist men requires the redefinition of femininity that has been initiated by soca and dancehall scenes. I would like to conduct further research on promoting alternative images of autonomous Caribbean womanhood that transform the Jezebel myth. 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