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University of the West Indies, Cave Hill, Barbados
7th Annual Conference
March 29-31, 2006
Sherbourne Conference Centre, Barbados
Jezebels, Soca and Dancehall Divas:
The Impact of Images of Femininity upon Social Policies
and Gender Relationships in the Caribbean
By
Dr. Annecka Leolyn Marshall
University of the West Indies, Jamaica
SOCIAL POLICY CHALLENGES IN THE
POST-INDEPENDENCE ERA
Jezebels, Soca and Dancehall Divas:
The Impact of Images of Femininity upon Social Policies and
Gender Relationships in the Caribbean
By
Dr. Annecka Leolyn Marshall
University of the West Indies, Jamaica
Paper presented at SALISES 7th Annual Conference, Sherbourne Conference Centre,
Barbados.
29 – 31 March, 2006
Jezebels, Soca and Dancehall Divas:
The Impact of Images of Femininity upon Social Policies and
Gender Relationships in the Caribbean
Dr. Annecka Leolyn Marshall
ABSTRACT
The biblical image of Jezebel portrays womanhood as evil, shameless and treacherous.
Jezebels are allegedly power hungry, sexually aggressive and immoral. I want to consider
the extent that the Jezebel stereotype influences policy interventions as well as
partnerships among Caribbean men and women. I debate the implications of challenging
tensions in soca and dancehall cultures whereby women are perceived as Jezebels and
men as unfaithful and unreliable. I focus on the importance of developing familial and
community solidarity that confronts the antagonistic notion of women undermining,
marginalizing and emasculating men in the Caribbean region. As policy makers,
comrades and lovers improving feminist consciousness and activism around gender
relationships is fundamental to social, economic and political emancipation in Caribbean
societies.
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Jezebels, Soca and Dancehall Divas:
The Impact of Images of Femininity upon Social Policies and
Gender Relationships in the Caribbean
Portraying Caribbean women as Jezebels has been central to the ideological justification
for systems of racism, sexism, heterosexism and class oppression. This paper explores the
ways that the historical development of representations of women as Jezebels has
contributed to centuries of subordination that continue in contemporary Caribbean
societies. I address the manner that myriad of images of sinful, bestial, diseased and
licentious womanhood have been used to legitimize sexual and social exploitation. The
institutionalization of myths of sinful hypersexuality constitutes a tool of domination that
impedes the socio-economic and political advancement of women in the Caribbean
region. The objectification, dehumanization and relegation of Caribbean women as
Jezebels impede identities, relationships and social policies.
Stereotyped as rampant sexual animals, sensuous, promiscuous, breeders and prostitutes
the depiction of the Biblical image of Jezebel is a form of social coercion that undermines
the authority of Caribbean women. The controlling image of Jezebel whereby women are
deemed as sexually aggressive, immoral, domineering and dirty is an influential
stereotype. Constructing womanhood as evil, shameless, treacherous and power hungry
has profound implications for social policies, gendered violence, sex tourism and
citizenship. The Jezebel myth creates tensions and antagonisms within partnerships
among men and women in Caribbean societies. I argue that despite the conflicts that arise
from the pervasiveness of the Jezebel icon Caribbean women affirm alternative self
definitions that defy prevalent racialised sexual stereotypes. Caribbean women assert
their right to reclaim self awareness, beauty and status in their individual lifestyles as
well as within soca and dancehall cultures. Caribbean women negotiate their own self
concepts, sexuality and relationships to be independent, successful and passionate. As
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survivors of the Jezebel mythology women in the Caribbean develop the self esteem, love
and respect that is necessary to be responsible, confident and assertive.
WHO IS JEZEBEL?
The portrayal of Jezebel whore originated in the Bible, was reinforced during slavery and
persists today since Black women are largely viewed as hypersexual commodities. The
most infamous Jezebel was the wife of King Ahab of Israel. In 9th century B.C. Jezebel
was the chief priestess of the false God Baal of Maleka. As a ruthless queen she
introduced vile idol worship and human sacrifice. Jezebel was a spiritually dead woman
who was against God. She suppressed faith by persecuting and ordering the death of the
prophets of Jehova h. The Jezebel image is relevant to contemporary Caribbean societies
because the depiction of horrendous and evil femininity run amok still persists. The
Biblical Jezebel promoted ungodliness, paganism and sexual immorality. Jezebel was
shameless, adulterous and unrepentant of her sin (Old Testament: 1st Kings 18 and 19,
New Testament: 2nd Kings 9 and Revelations 2).
Historically Black women have been portrayed as innately promiscuous and predatory
Jezebels. The demeaning Jezebel stereotype was used during slavery as a rationalization
for the sexual exploitation of Black women (Collins, 1990). Under enslavement Black
women were defined as animalistic, evil and diseased. The icon of the sexually
denigrated Black female not only effectively legitimated the maximum exploitation of
her reproductive labour but also exonerated white men who abused her from guilt. The
rearticulation of this history of racialized sexual subordination contributes to the inferior
socio-economic and political position of women in the Caribbean region. The
representation of Jezebel in Caribbean societies today reproduces myths that have existed
since the sixteenth century.
Viewed as lascivious and alluring slave women were charged with beguiling and
tempting their white slave masters (hooks, 1982). Since enslavement the cultural
definition of lewd, worldly and ‘loose’ women who use their ‘feminine wiles’ to deceive
men has been used against Black womanhood. Seen as willing, uninhibited and predatory
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sexual deviants the raw image of sexual seductress with insatiable sexual appetites has
hindered feminist consciousness and activism. It is important to reject the idea of exotic
women who undermine, marginalize and emasculate men in order to develop unity within
families and local communities. Progressive and constructive dialogue entails reeducation and mass based mobilization around gender identities and relationships. We
need to re-examine the Jezebel myth as part of coalition strategies that promote gender
equality within the context of effective national struggles for socio-economic and
political progress. Eradicating the influence of the racist, sexist, heterosexist and elitist
Jezebel image will empower women to change social policies for the emancipation of
Caribbean societies.
This paper queries how we can change the Jezebel image that denigrates Caribbean
women. I argue that it is imperative that we develop strategies to overcome postcolonial,
religious, middle class, lesbophobic and male dominated constructions of Caribbean
female identities. Derogatory images of Jezebels that were perpetuated during slavery to
rationalize exploitation and the objectification of Black women’s bodies are still relevant
(Marshall, 1996). Modern Jezebels cause similar tribulation as women who are regarded
as being greedy, crafty and anti- men. The name Jezebel signifies a sexually perverse,
cruel and deceitful woman. The wickedness and murdering jealousy of the original
Jezebel was punished by dogs who devoured her flesh which was then trampled by
horses. Current day depictions of Jezebels are destructive because cultural misperceptions
contribute to uncritical acceptance of the tendency of the male marginalization thesis to
blame women for socio-economic barriers to male progress (Barriteau, 2003).
According to bell hooks the portrayal of Black women as innately sinful, bitchy and
treacherous circumscribes self perceptions and relationships. hooks explains that the icon
of assertive, willful and tough womanhood is hated as a threat to masculinity;
“…Christian mythology depicted woman as the source of sin and evil;
racist-sexist mythology simply designated black women the epitome of
female evil and sinfulness. White men could justify their dehumanization
and sexual exploitation of black women by arguing that they possessed
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inherent evil demonic qualities. Black men could claim that they could not
get along with black women because they were so evil. And white women
could use the image of the evil sinful black woman to emphasize their own
innocence and purity. Like the biblical figure Eve, black women became
the scapegoats for misogynist men and racist women who needed to see
some group of women as the embodiment of female evil.” (hooks, 1982:
85)
HARLOTS IN SOCA AND DANCEHALL
The Jezebel image has served to justify centuries of racial, sexual and class oppression
that are reflected in popular culture. The depiction of Caribbean women as promiscuous,
prostitutes and libidinous is evident in soca and dancehall scenes. I will consider the
extent that the myth of oversexed sensuous temptresses who bewitch, mesmerize and
emasculate men is confronted by women in the Caribbean. Being objectified as immoral
and deviant sexual animals is a source of both suppression and liberation. Images of
hypersexual degeneration pathologize, dehumanize and victimize Caribbean women. The
portrayal of Caribbean women as abnormal, diseased, dirty and predatory controls gender
and sexual identities to a large extent (Marshall, 1996). Soca and dancehall lyrics
perpetuate notions about evil, sensuous and animalistic breeders who are perceived as a
potentially dangerous threat to Caribbean manhood. Soca divas and dancehall queens are
portrayed as depraved sexual deviants and aggressive seducers.
Donna Hope examines “femmephobia” in dancehall culture whereby women are
portrayed as undermining male power and privilege. Violently misogynistic lyrics depict
women as prostitutes who cheat on their male partners, weaken and betray them. Innercity and working class Black men who are unable to attain the traditional attributes of
manhood gain status by boasting machismo. Songs assert aggressive male sexual prowess
and excessive male virility in ways that are hostile to women. Dancehall music
perpetuates male bravado, stamina and sexual conq uest to the detriment of women. The
policing of heterosexual male meanings and boundaries demean and degrade women to
mere body parts. Female denigration and objectification reduce women to sexual
commodities (Hope, 2005).
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The ritualistic engagement in the prevailing construction of sexual identities in the
dancehall regulates the attitudes and behaviour of men and women in wider Jamaican
society. The patriarchal structure and heterosexist bias of Jamaican society privileges
male heterosexuality. Aggressive anti- male homosexual paranoia of heterosexual men is
legitimated by violent, inflammatory and condemnatory lyrics that expound intolerance
and contempt of gay men. Donna Hope explains that homosexuality threatens patriarchal
control of women and fragile male identities. Insecure heterosexual men regard gay men
as traitors who sabotage notions of true manhood, hypermasculinity, brute strength and
domination over women. To compensate for this fear gay men are chastised as powerless,
effeminate, emasculated and sexually submissive (Hope, 2005).
The feminization of ‘slackness’ embraces and flaunts sexuality in a brazen manner that
often combats the denigration of Caribbean womanhood. The creation of woman
identified self concepts that oppose patriarchal constructions of Caribbean femininity is
shown by the demands of Alison Hinds for sexual independence and respect. Proclaiming
positive sexual appeal Alison Hinds encourages women to ‘misbehave and don’t be
afraid’. Calls for ‘rude gal wine’ that beckon women to ‘bring your badness and come’
resist male domination. Alison Hinds controls men in stage performances to ‘make the
men dem surrender’ and ‘women run border’. Female DJs such as Tanya Stevens, Lady
Saw and Cecile embrace the power of sexuality as a forceful weapon to wield against
men. Removing taboos about self pleasuring sensuality female DJs celebrate women’s
need for sexual liberation.
The exploration and expression of emancipating sexual agency is highlighted by Carolyn
Cooper. The dancehall is a ‘carnivalesque’ space that subverts subjugating expectations
about femininity (Cooper, 2004) Women in dancehall cultures reclaim independent
sexual prowess and erotically rebellious roles that are restricted by prevailing social
conventions. Enjoying socio-sexual freedom to define self concepts and change
relationships women meet their desires for satisfaction and survival. Women disrupt
repressive patriarchal, postcolonial, middle class and religious ideas about sexual
depravity that undermine their authority. Reasserting progressive control of their
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identities and bodies female DJs and revelers challenge and subvert conventional beliefs
about female respectability. Redefining notions of sexually lewd, corrupt and vulgar
working class culture female ‘slackness’ is an oppositional stance that defies conservative
and male dominated standards of decency and piety. Carolyn Cooper contends;
“Arguing transgressively for the freedom of women to claim a selfpleasuring sexual identity that may even be explicitly homoerotic, I
propose that Jamaican dancehall culture at home and in the diaspora is
best understood as a potentially liberating space in which working-class
women and their more timid middle-class sisters assert the freedom to
play out eroticized roles that may not ordinarily be available to them in the
rigid social conventions of the everyday. The dancehall, thus conceived, is
an erogenous zone in which the celebration of female sexuality and
fertility is ritualized.” (Cooper, 2004: 17)
The persisting effect of the Jezebel myth upon Caribbean women’s self-perceptions and
interactions is important. The creation of new self-perceptions enables Caribbean women
to oppose being castigated as animalistic, dirty and licentious. However when the ways in
which stereotypes of rampant sexuality are discussed this is usually subject to
heterosexist bias. There is a tendency for debates around female sexuality to deny or
subsume the priorities of lesbians and bisexual women. It is vital to challenge the
institutionalizatio n of heterosexism and homophobia. Self actualization whereby women
control their sexuality necessitates addressing the extent that heterosexuality is socially
imposed by racialized images. Challenging the marginalization of Caribbean women as
sexual animals is central to the development of Caribbean femininity. Resisting the
derogatory Jezebel mythology that distorts Caribbean womanhood and renders invisible
the multiplicity of female identities helps to counteract the burden of racist sexual
stereotypes.
Recognition of the origins of the Jezebel image combined with an acute understanding of
why it continues to exist will support Caribbean women to surpass stereotypes. The
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pervasiveness of the Jezebel myth contributes to the subordination of women in the
Caribbean region. Confronting negative images of Caribbean femininity in art, social
services, education, employment, housing and the legal system is an ongoing fight. We
need to explore Caribbean women’s own diverse self definitions so that rather than being
a contradictory source of empowerment that both confirms and refutes the stereotype new
models of subjectivity are expressed. According to bell hooks it is essential to query;
“How do we create an oppositional worldview, a consciousness, an
identity, a standpoint that exists not only as that struggle which also
opposes dehumanization but as that movement which enables creative,
expansive self-actualization? Opposition is not enough. In that vacant
space after one has resisted there is still the tendency to become – to make
oneself anew.” (hooks, 1991: 15)
Grasping exciting possibilities for self representation and affirmation can be enhanced by
increased dialogue about effective strategies for Caribbean women to overcome
heterosexism. Homophobia leads to the invisibility, erasure, silence, distortion and
repression of the specific identities and experiences of lesbian and bisexual women.
Stigmatized as enemies of Caribbean cultures, deviant and sinful sexual ‘minorities’
dominant assumptions about fe mininity must be challenged. It is necessary to refute
patriarchal and heterosexist structures that render lesbians and bisexual women socially
unacceptable and indiscernible. Opposing regressive attitudes that subordinate women
who are not heterosexual is potentially liberating for all women. Seriously tackling
patriarchy and homophobia can only achieve gender equality when heterosexual
supremacy and privilege are rejected.
EVIL RELATIONSHIPS?
Women’s ability to manipulate male supremacist power and control in relationships is
restricted by the profound impact of Jezebel imagery about evil, strength and aggression.
The acceptance of racist and heterosexist stereotypes of women as Jezebels and men as
studs is detrimental to intimate relationships in Caribbean societies. The ideals of being a
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man are premised on power, control and authority. The breadwinner role determines the
social attributes of manhood so that failure to excel in it negatively influences the psyche
of Caribbean men. The awareness that they are unable to achieve employment aspirations
to prove their manliness propels many men to dominate the sexual domain. R.W. Connell
asserts that rampant sexuality and strength often replaces the work ethic as a main trait of
male identity;
“The reaction of the ‘failed’ is likely to be a claim to other sources of
power, even other definitions of masculinity. Sporting prowess, physical
aggression or sexual conquest may do.” (Connell quoted in Ghail, 1994:
295).
Janet Brown and Barry Chevannes explain that the social construction of male sexuality
in the Caribbean region is premised on heterosexual virility. Men embrace societal values
that they should have several female sexual partners and children. There is immense pride
in the notion that the heterosexua l prowess of Black men is superior to that of males from
other racial and ethnic backgrounds. In general monogamy and fidelity are perceived as
signs of male weakness. There is great social pressure to live up to both personal and
cultural beliefs that men must be virile and unfaithful. Janet Brown and Barry Chevannes
explain that;
“Manhood is demonstrated by sexual prowess. It is usually measured by
the number of serial or concurrent female sexual partners. A secondary
‘proof’ of manhood is the number of children which results from this
prowess, whether in or outside of steady relationships…Manhood
therefore clearly involves sexual activities with women. The sooner
manhood is established, the better for a young male’s self- image and the
sooner parents can stop worrying about this aspect of their son’s
maturation. Therefore, sexual activity for boys begins early, with the
discreet knowledge of parents, and sometimes the encouragement of
fathers.” (Brown and Chevannes, 1998: 23)
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Janet Brown and Barry Chevannes maintain that homophobic beliefs are central aspects
of Caribbean masculinity. Boys are expected to be sexually active and to have many
female partners to prove that they are not gay;
“Fears and disgust of homosexuality were commonly expressed,
particularly in the Jamaican communities. Many parents believed that
certain child-rearing practices or child behaviours could lead to this
‘deviance’. A small measure of tolerance was expressed only in terms of
suspected genetic make- up which could not be prevented or cured.”
(Brown and Chevannes, 1998: 23)
Fear of homosexuals, lesbians and bisexuals limits sexual desires and experiences by
preventing the full realization of erotica. Michael Kimmel states that homophobia is an
informally imposed social mechanism that allows men to regulate each other. The
institutionalization of the irrational fear of gay men is a form of surveillance that
sanctions against open displays of same-sex attraction. Such policing disciplines men to
adhere to conventional prescriptions of acceptable masculine traits to demonstrate that
they are not homosexuals. Men are afraid that other men may regard them as failing to
match hegemonic standards of manhood (Kimmel, 1996). Attempting to negate the threat
that they are suspected of being gay men repress their sexual identities and restrict sexual
expression. Kimmel argues that;
“…Homophobia is the fear that other men will unmask us, emasculate us,
reveal to us and the world that we do not measure up, that we are not real
men. And we are afraid to let other men see that fear. Fear makes us
ashamed, because the recognition of fear in ourselves is proof to ourselves
that we are not as manly as we pretend…” (Kimmel, 1996: 19)
Anti- gay sentiments control the attitudes and behaviour of boys and men. Maintaining the
authority and privileges of allegedly heterosexual men homophobia also contributes to
hidden double sexual lifestyles. J.L. King asserts that the taboo of being homosexual in
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homophobic Black communities leads to men living on the ‘down low’. Cultural
constraints, religious conservatism and unhealthy ideas about rampant heterosexuality
make Black men scared to reveal their homoerotic desires. Black men have sex with
other men but do not identify themselves as being gay. Instead they live an illusory public
appearance of straightness that puts unsuspecting female partners at risk of sexual
diseases. J. L. King maintains that socially responsible and financially successful Black
men engage in a secret subculture of down low brothers. Blatant homophobia coerces
Black men to lead an invisible world of having sex on the down low (King, 2005). Hiding
their sexual pleasure with other men Black men display denial, lies, deceit and
dishonesty.
In the Caribbean region it is significant to query the extent that unreasonable hatred of
homosexuality is a means for both men and women to deal with repressed same sex
orientation. The institutionalization of violent homophobia and lesbophobia inhibits the
multiplicity of male and female identities so that interpersonal relationships are
circumscribed. Conflicting experiences of manhood and womanhood are due to tensions
between perceived power and powerlessness over women and other men. As Jezebels
women are defined as being dangerous to men and characterized as promiscuous,
sexually perverse and cheating on their male partners. The Jezebel myth contributes to
hostile and antagonistic relationships that are based on love, mistrust and anger.
Competition between women and men for social and sexual power is frequently due to
Caribbean women internalizing restrictive ideas about masculinities and femininities.
Seeing men in terms of infidelity, irresponsibility and sexual virility women often fear
that men are having relationships with other women. Whilst Caribbean women resist
dominant images about their female identities to recreate forceful self perceptions and
relationships stereotypes about men’s sexual prowess are often believed.
Caribbean women set their own agendas and confront men’s efforts to cont rol them.
Negating the Jezebel image women assert sexual autonomy to determine their own sexual
self concepts and realities. Regaining self dignity by using their own bodies and
sexualities to meet their requirements entails the subversion of loving power
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relationships. Refuting stereotypes about heterosexual, gay, lesbian and bisexual
relationships is essential to exploring alternative meanings of sexuality. This is integral to
enhancing equal sexual partnerships, commitment to monogamous relationships and
family responsibility.
INSTITUTIONALIZED JEZEBELS IN SOCIAL POLICIES
Patricia Hill Collins explains that the controlling myth of Jezebel is institutionalized in
social arenas such as the mass media, social services and workplaces. The depiction of
Jezebels is used by men to control female sexuality. By pathologizing Black women as
being prone to prostitution they are rejected in terms of ideals of traditional womanhood.
Those who are labeled as prostitutes are criminalized as ‘fallen’ women who are despised
and abused as a corruptive threat to society. Moral panics about Jezebels lead to
discriminatory practices that exclude women from State resources. Women are exploited
by legislation, statutory frameworks and policy makers viewing them as subordinate sex
objects (Collins, 1990). The mythical image of Jezebel reinforces gender biases in the
justice system and the inferior treatment of women in Caribbean societies. The unfair
treatment of Caribbean women in the law is a consequence of devaluation by the Jezebel
myth. The inscription of the distorted depiction of Jezebel as the embodiment of
womanhood into Caribbean jurisprudence is evident.
Gender bias in customs, beliefs, traditions, law and litigation is linked to the myth of
promiscuous temptress. The role of prostitute contributes to the denial of women’s equal
rights as citizens. Cultural and self concepts maintain oppositional notions that compare
‘good’ versus ‘bad’ women. The former category of female identity is characterized by
respectability, decency, domestic roles, moral purity, chastity until marriage and
monogamy. Black women are castigated in terms of promiscuity, perverse and aggressive
hypersexuality. Patricia Hill Collins maintains that the image of Jezebel is used as a
yardstick to measure ‘normal’, ‘natural’, ‘true’ and ‘real’ womanhood. Collins argues
that Black women challenge the Jezebel image of sexually degenerate animal, disease
and deviance that is used to justify demeaning treatment and misogynistic violence
(Collins, 1990).
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Kemala Kempadoo explains that exoticism in sex tourism industries legitimates racist
and patriarchal domination. Kemala Kempadoo asserts that racialist and sexist state
control of sex industries sustains Western identities, hegemonic masculine power and
exploitative class relations in the sex tourism industry. Tourism-oriented prostitution in
the Caribbean serves the escapist fantasies of clients. Satisftying their racialized desires
for sexual pleasure reaffirms dangerous power relations that are based upon myths of a
foreign, primitive, barbarous and ‘exotic other’. Ideologies of erotic, primitive and
corrupt womanhood reaffirm the power of Western tourists. Prostitutes are vulnerable to
coercive slavery-like conditions of debt bondage that violate their human rights. The
organized activism of the worldwide sex workers movement challenges the shameful
‘whore stigma’ by demanding respect for social justice, improved working conditions and
health care of prostitutes (Kempadoo, 2003.)
Institutionalized patria rchy, hegemonic masculinity and homophobia within Caribbean
nation states reinforce pressure to conform to heterosexist ideals of womanhood. Women
who do not accept the doctrines of female submission, compulsory heterosexuality and
the nuclear family encounter social ostracism and isolation. The law defines citizens as
primarily male and heterosexual. Legislation perpetuates oppressive sanctions against
same-sex desire which is castigated as perverse, corrupt, diseased and destructive and
contributes to the policing of the female body. Patriarchal and heterosexist governments
and state institutions criminalize, discriminate against and punish lesbians, gay men and
prostitutes for not adopting the traditional norms of appropriate sexual behaviour
(Alexander, 1997). As such women are disciplined to meet the Christian characteristics of
faithful wife and good mother. The integration of gender sensitive initiatives into
governments, NGOs and the private sector are necessary to challenge cultural
expectations about appropriate female and heterosexual conduct in Caribbean popular
culture, public opinion, religion, science, medicine, social policies and politics that
reinforce male power and privilege (Atluri, 2001).
The equal participation of men and women in community oriented training schemes and
research programmes is pivotal for achieving gender equality. The transformation of
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ruling power ideologies and practices that are legitimated by the Jezebel image must
tackle racism, sexism, heterosexism and class oppression. Raising awareness about the
prevalence of the Jezebel myth includes constructive dialogue and re-education. Personal
and collective consciousness at grassroots levels is connected to enhancing the services of
various agencies. It is crucial that policy makers, employers, trade unions, educational
institutions, the mass media, statutory and voluntary groups debunk the Jezebel icon in
regional, national and international policies for gender reforms. Through advocacy and
lobbying Caribbean women reconstruct the defiance of diverse sexual identities and
experiences. In personal relationships and popular culture women refute and surpass
confining frameworks that romanticize, exorcise and misapprehend them in Caribbean
societies.
CLOSURE
The Biblical imagery of Jezebel is used to refer to womanhood as sinful, prone to
prostitution, dominant and domineering. This she-devil myth is a scapegoat that damages
perceptions of Caribbean women within intimate relationships, social, economic and
political policies. Resolving the divisive contradictions of Caribbean women’s self
perceptions and realities is essential to minimizing power struggles. The devaluation of
Caribbean women is a form of social control that is demonstrated in gender biased social
policy interventions. The prominent role as key figures in Caribbean families and
communities reinforces the manner that women are wrongly cast as fallen females who
are wicked. Feminist solidarity with pro- feminist men requires the redefinition of
femininity that has been initiated by soca and dancehall scenes. I would like to conduct
further research on promoting alternative images of autonomous Caribbean womanhood
that transform the Jezebel myth. New visions about sexually assertive women who
control their lives without conforming to traditional relationships are central to gender
equality, development programmes, national progress and overcoming adversity.
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