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Metaphysics Ontology: "of being" is the philosophical study of the nature of being, existence or reality in general, as well as the basic categories of being and their relations. Traditionally listed as a part of the major branch of philosophy known as metaphysics, ontology deals with questions concerning what entities exist or can be said to exist, and how such entities can be grouped, related within a hierarchy, and subdivided according to similarities and differences. The term metaphysics actually comes from somewhat of an historical accident. Editors of Aristotle's work simply titled the book which comes after his 'physics' the 'metaphysics' - which indeed discusses many of the classic problems of metaphysics - so 'meta' simply means 'after'. What do you think of as some of the questions of metaphysics? Metaphysics is the study of the nature, structure and constitution of reality - sounds almost like a definition of philosophy for some. A major component of metaphysics is ontology, i.e. what there is (matter, sets, null set, experience, minds, relations). Other aspects of metaphysics are questions concerning the nature of time and space (relations, or containers?), what properties all entities share, free will, determinism. In ontology, questions concerning the nature of minds has become somewhat of a separate discussion (mind/body relation, dualism, reference, content, individuation) which often overlaps with philosophy of language and more recently philosophy of science (and cognitive science). Metaphysical Q’s What metaphysical beliefs do you think you have? Which do you think science has? Christianity? Is metaphysics a waste of time? Why, why not? What kind of metaphysical questions can you think of? Does the past exist? Do souls exist? Does the future exist? What kinds of relations can they have? What is the logical structure, if any, of the universe? What are properties? Are properties and relations real? What is space? What is time? Can there be a stretch of time during which nothing occurs? Are there possible worlds? Do they exist? Are my actions free? Is the universe absurd or rational? Why is there stuff at all? Was the universe created? Is there a god or gods?) Philosophy can be divided into two major directions of thought, centered on what is considered to be the fundamental issue in philosophy: the relation between Being and Thinking. Let us consider some very basic feature of our being. We sit for instance on a chair. We can see the chair, we can touch it, and the other senses can as well perceive of the chair. Now these perceptions all occur within our brain, where the input data of the sensory organs come together, and form an "image" of the thing we perceive. A central issue in this is whether or we regard the thing that caused the perceptions as real or not. Or in other words, apart of our perceptions and awareness of the chair, is there really something outside and separate from our mind? Materialism Materialism answers this with a clear yes. Not only by our senses but also through science and instruments, we can know about this object, that is separate from our mind. There is an objective world, independent of our mind. The objective world consists of what is called matter, which has the property of being in motion (undergoing change) at all times. Space and time just denote the modes of existence of matter. Idealism Idealism answers this with a clear no. Apart from our immediate perceptions and awareness of the world, there is no such thing as an outside, objective world. The world takes places entirely within our mind. Outside of that, nothing exists. METAPHYSICAL POSITIONS MATERIALISM IDEALISM DUALISM Materialism Hobbes is one of the first modern writers to explicitly endorse the position in metaphysics known as materialism. Materialism is an ontological position, that is, it answers the question "What is there?" - materialism answers "matter, i.e. physical objects". As simple, straightforward and uncontroversial as this answer may seem, it is anything but. Science, of course, has adopted this metaphysical position. But what of minds, souls, and spirit consciousness? This is a question that materialists have no compelling answer for (compelling for some, in any case). Hobbes was not the first materialist. At the very least, Democritus and Leucippus the atomists, preceded him. Hobbes, however, had a more modern view (and no doubt more of his writings survived so we understand the position better) of materialism so he is a good historically representative materialist. Of course, he had no difficultly explaining things - wood, stone, flesh, brains, stars, moons, bone, you name it. As physicists are content to do today, he postulated things (all things) are composed of atoms. So, what's the problem? What about minds? Hobbes is convinced that we are complicated machines. Just as Data is from The Starship Enterprise. The episode "measure of a man" is an extended look at whether Data counts as sentient. The conclusion, of course, is yes - so Data is granted rights. Hobbes would hardly be surprised by this conclusion, but are we? We are surround by Data's ancestors - computers. We have no trouble explaining them, and we also have no trouble realizing they are not sentient (capable of feelings). The question for materialists is one of prediction: How would we know if/when they become sentient? What is it about certain complicated machines (us) that distinguish them from other complicated machines (computers)? How do we understand choice, desire, anger, and consciousness such that machines can have all these properties/abilities? The materialist thinks we can give good neurophysiological descriptions. Don't forget, we can explain almost all the behavior of some organisms in this way, why not us? For many, this is a troubling idea. Why? The most common, and most hotly debated still, objection to the materialist position is the consciousness objection. The objection goes like this - we are conscious and nothing else is. We are unlike machines in this important respect. Materialism, in principle, can not provide an explanation of the 'emergence' of consciousness from physical matter or the intentionality of mental states. Data isn't conscious (nor are zombies). Thus, we are not merely material things. Of course, those who support this position must provide an alternative explanation of consciousness - we start as a zygote, when is consciousness infused? How do we argue against Hobbes without resorting to a religious dogma? Idealism Idealism on the other hand claims that there is no such material world, and that the world in first instance is our mental process, our mind and thoughts. That what is perceived, and which behaves ordinary, is not an entity on itself, but was created in or by the mind. If we consider the claim of Idealism to it's ultimate extend, we conclude that it would see on the world as if there was only one mind. This would lead to a contradictory point of view of solipsism, which is the vision that apart from our individual mind, nothing at all whatsoever exists, including other minds. This point of view of solipsism is however not a viewpoint taking in by any known philosopher. It would be a contradiction to even consider it a philosophy, because the activity of philosophy contains discussing it with other people (minds). According to solipsism, only one such mind exists, so to discuss it with other minds would be a contradiction. Idealism however, in order to escape from this absurd point of view, is more commonly known and developed in the form of objective idealism. Instead of one individual mind, the world is considered to be in essence and primary instance an Absolute Idea (Hegel) or fundamental principle. The connection between objective idealism and religion can be made clear, cause the idea of a deity (God) is just that: a fundamental principle or Absolute Idea. Idealism as such as a whole does not oppose as such the fact that there is a material world, only that in the point of view of idealism, matter is not the primary substance. According to idealism mind (Hegel: Geist (mind, spirit)) in the form of a fundamental principle or an Absolute Idea is the primary substance, matter is just a secondary substance, which does not exists independent of mind. Dualism Dualism is the ontological position that there are two kinds of beings (substances) matter and spirit both of which are eternal. It is distinct from monism and from theism. Historical examples of dualism include 1) Greek - Plato and Aristotle 2) Persian - Zoroastrianism 3) Indian - Samkhya Yoga 4) Mormonism - heterodox Christianity Metaphysics Dualism In accounting for change and permanence Aristotle analyses the world in terms of form and matter, potentiality and actuality. Matter without form is pure potentiality. The source of all change is the Unmoved Mover, pure actuality, spirit without matter. The dilemma is: if matter has some actuality without spirit then it so far is ordinary dualism but if matter has no actuality without spirit then matter would be created and temporal (relating to time). Monism Monism is any philosophical view which holds that there is unity in a given field of inquiry, where this is not to be expected. Thus, some philosophers may hold that the Universe is really just one thing, despite its many appearances and diversities; or theology may support the view that there is one God, with many manifestations in different religions. The following pre-Socratic philosophers described reality as being monistic: Thales: Water. Anaximander: Apeiron (meaning 'the undefined infinite'). Reality is some, one thing, but we cannot know what. Anaximenes: Air. Heraclitus: Fire (in that everything is in constant flux). Parmenides: Being. Reality is an unmoving perfect sphere, unchanging, undivided. theism a belief in the existence of God or gods. 2. belief in one god as creator and ruler of the universe, without rejection of special revelation. Belief in the existence of a divine reality; usually referring to monotheism (one God), as opposed to pantheism (all is God), polytheism (many gods), and atheism (without God). 1. Dualism The appeal of dualism lies in it being the nearest logical alternative to material and spiritual monism which avoids the criticisms raised against both. It also offers a solution to the problem of evil generally by locating the problem in matter vs. spirit. Objections to its appeal: 1) if the soul is eternal how can it go through a unique event, for example growth in knowledge, liberation or attainment of heaven? 2) if the soul is inherently good and eternal and independent of the body why is it in an evil body? 3) One can conceive of an evil spirit (the devil) or of evil not based in bodily needs (Eden). Dualistic attitudes are reflected in popular theism in several ways: 1) the world is evil; one should flee it or avoid it - monastic withdrawal, ascetic distrust of the sensuous, celibacy as a higher spiritual state 2) the world is corruptible especially in the sins of the flesh and must be guarded against (vs evil as disregard of reason) 3) the world is morally neutral in its basic institutional structures; personal spirituality is all that is needed 4) the world is good as the creation of God but not as good as the world to come - heaven. Two forms of dualism 1) ordinary dualism in which matter is eternal and independent of spirit - Plato 2) dependent dualism in which matter is eternal and dependent on spirit - Aristotle. The first argument against materialism holds against ordinary dualism.