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2-3 -- 2-4: Biochemistry pgs. 44-53 Section 2-3 2–3 Carbon Compounds A. The Chemistry of Carbon B. Macromolecules 1. Carbohydrates 2. Lipids 3. Nucleic Acids 4. Proteins Biochemistry Organic chemistry is the study of all compounds that contain carbon Biochemistry is the study of compounds that contain carbon found in the body We will be studying proteins, lipids, nucleic acids, and carbohydrates (all contain carbon and are found in the body) The Chemistry of Carbon A carbon atom has four electrons available for bonding in its outer energy level. In order to become stable, a carbon atom forms four covalent bonds that fill its outer energy level (needs 4 valence electrons) Carbon can combine with hydrogen, oxygen, phosphorus, sulfur, and nitrogen in the body Two carbon atoms can form various types of covalent bonds—single, double or triple. Single Bond Double Bond Triple Bond Section 2-3 Carbon compounds vary greatly in size. When carbon atoms bond to each other, they can form straight chains (linear), branched chains, or rings (circular) Methane Acetylene Butadiene Benzene Isooctane Cyclic Branched & double bonded Linear & triple bond Linear & single bonded Linear and branched Building Molecules- formation and breaking of chemical bonds Monomers – small building block molecules; used to build larger molecules; linked to each other by covalent bonds (glucose) Polymers – molecules formed by linking three or more monomers; also called macromolecules (starch and protein) Molecular chains Small molecules bond together to form chains called polymers. A polymer is a large molecule formed when many smaller molecules bond together. Hydrolysis Dehydration synthesis Macromolecules Polymers or “giant compounds” in our living cells Made of 1000’s and 100,000’s smaller molecules (monomers) Formed by polymerization- large compounds built by joining smaller ones Monomers can be different like beads in a multicolored necklace (polymer) 4 groups of organic compounds that are macromolecules found in living things are: – – – – Carbohydrates Lipids Nucleic acids Proteins Section 2-3 Macromolecules Carbon Compounds include Carbohydrates Lipids Nucleic acids Proteins that consist of that consist of that consist of that consist of Sugars and starches Fats and oils Nucleotides Amino Acids which contain which contain which contain which contain Carbon,hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, phosphorus Carbon, hydrogen,oxygen, nitrogen, Carbon, hydrogen, oxygen Carbon, hydrogen, oxygen Carbohydrates A carbohydrate is a biomolecule composed of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen with a ratio of about two hydrogen atoms and one oxygen atom for every carbon atom. Main energy source for living things The simplest type of carbohydrate is a simple sugar called a monosaccharide. (ie. glucose, fructose (fruits), galactose (milk) – Breakdown of glucose in body is an immediate energy source for cell’s activities Carbohydrates The largest carbohydrate molecules are polysaccharides, polymers composed of many monosaccharide subunits. (ie. potatoes, liver) Polysaccharides are extra sugars stored as complex carbohydrates like glycogen, starch, and cellulose; used for fuel, energy storage, and support – starch - composed of glucose monomers; energy storage for plants; provides most of the food for the world’s people – glycogen - branched glucose monomers; energy storage in animals; usually stored in muscles and liver – cellulose - composed of linear chains of glucose monomers that are cross-linked with each other; provides support for plant’s cell walls; most abundant organic molecule on Earth; “fiber” in diet of animals Cows have a bacteria in their digestive system that hydrolyzes the cellulose for them Starch Molecule- made up of glucose monomers Section 2-3 (usually identified by –OH and many carbons) Starch molecule Glucose Glucose monomer 3 polysaccharides Affect of Soap http://www.chemistry.nus.edu.sg/2500/soap .htm Lipids Lipids are large biomolecules that are made mostly of carbon and hydrogen with a small amount of oxygen, and sometimes phosphorus They are insoluble in water because their molecules are nonpolar and are not attracted by water molecules 4 categories: – Fats- store long term energy (saturated and unsaturated) – Waxes- waterproof coverings (feathers, cuticle, apple peel) – Phospholipids- makes up cell membrane to help move materials in and out of cell – Steroids- includes hormones- produced in one part of body to control functions in another part of body (estrogen and testosterone) Building blocks or monomers are glycerol and fatty acids (1:3) Phospholipids -Lipids that contain phosphate -Major component of cell membranes -Helps control movement of materials in and out of cell Fat Nucleic Acids - DNA and RNALarge, complex molecules composed of nucleotides 3 parts of a nucleotide 1) phosphate group 2) five-carbon sugar DNA = deoxyribose RNA = ribose 3) nitrogenous base DNA = adenine(A), thymine(T), guanine(G), cytosine(C) RNA = A, G, C uracil(U) phosphate base sugar Nucleotide monomers (which make up DNA and RNA)join by dehydration synthesis combining the sugar group of one nucleotide with the phosphate group of another Hydrogen bonding between nitrogenous bases is responsible for the final structure of DNA Purposes and Differences DNA – forms a double stranded helix made of two strands of nucleotides – contains instructions to control cell’s activities (heredity) and is used to form proteins – in nucleus – bases are A, T, C, G; deoxyribose sugar RNA – forms a single strand of nucleotides – carries instructions from DNA to ribosome to make proteins – moves from nucleus into cytoplasm – nitrogenous bases are A, U, C, G (not T); ribose sugar DNA Proteins a large, complex polymer composed of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, and sometimes sulfur building blocks (monomers) are amino acids – Amine group (-NH2), carboxyl group (-COOH), H, R group that is specific to each amino acid There are about 20 common amino acids that can make literally thousands of proteins Amino Acid: general structure) Protein- composed of amino acids R group Section 2-3 Amino Acid Examples General structure Alanine Serine Section 2-3 Amino Acid Examples Carboxyl group General structure Alanine Serine Section 2-3 Amino Acid Examples Carboxyl group General structure Alanine Serine The structure of proteins Peptide bonds are covalent bonds formed between amino acids to build a protein Figure 2-17 A Protein Proteins are the building blocks of many Amino structural acids components of organisms. The sequence of amino acids determines the function of the protein Essential to the structure and activities of life – Movement (actin and myosin) – Structural (collagen, keratin) – Transport (hemoglobin) – Storage (casein) – Regulation (hormones-insulin) – Defense (antibodies) – Biochemical control (enzymes) Section 2-3 Macromolecules Carbon Compounds include Carbohydrates Lipids Nucleic acids Proteins that consist of that consist of that consist of that consist of Sugars and starches Fats and oils Nucleotides Amino Acids which contain which contain which contain which contain Carbon,hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, phosphorus Carbon, hydrogen,oxygen, nitrogen, Carbon, hydrogen, oxygen Carbon, hydrogen, oxygen Section 2-4 2–4 Chemical Reactions and Enzymes A.Chemical Reactions B.Energy in Reactions 1. Energy Changes 2. Activation Energy C.Enzymes D.Enzyme Action 1. The Enzyme-Substrate Complex 2. Regulation of Enzyme Activity Chemical Reactions Living things are made up of chemical compounds Chemistry isn’t just what life is made of, it is also what life does – Organism’s growth interactions, reproduction, movement are all based on chemical reactions Chemical reaction- process that changes one set of chemicals into another set of chemicals – Some slow- iron + oxygen--- iron oxide or rust – Some quickly- hydrogen gas + oxygen--- explosive Reactant- elements or compounds that enter the chemical reaction Product- elements or compounds that are produced by reaction HCl + NaOH NaCl + H2O reactants shows products direction of change Chemical reactions always involves breaking and forming of new bonds Chemical Reaction in Your Body Your cells produce carbon dioxide (normal) Carbon dioxide is carried to lungs through blood Then exhaled But carbon dioxide is not soluble in water So in the blood, carbon dioxide and water form carbonic acid (very soluble in water) CO2 + H2O H2CO3 This chemical reaction allows blood to carry CO2 to the lungs Then the reaction reverses to produce CO2 to be exhaled from lungs and water absorbed back into body H2CO3 CO2 + H2O Energy in Reactions – chemical reactions involve breaking and forming bonds which releases or absorbs energy 1) Two types of Energy Changes Endothermic -- reactions in which energy is absorbed (feel no heat); temp goes down glucose + fructose + energy Temp 2) sucrose + water Temp Time Time Exothermic -- reactions in which energy is released; take place in cells of your body to produce energy needed for everything you do and to heat your body; temp goes up glucose + oxygen carbon dioxide + water + energy So for us to stay alive, we must carry out reactions that require energy so we have a source of energy to carry out chemical reactions – Plants get energy from sunlight – Animals get energy from food eaten Enzymes To make sure our body’s chemical reactions occur at a rate that our body needs, cells make catalysts – A catalyst is a substance that speeds up the rate of a chemical reaction without being changed by the reaction – Enzymes are proteins that act as a biological catalyst – Enzymes speed up chemical reactions that take place in our cells Ex- carbonic anhydrase is an enzyme that removes carbon dioxide from your blood quickly into the lungs – Enzymes are specific in which reaction they catalyze Enzyme Action http://www.northland.cc.mn.us/biology/Biol ogy1111/animations/enzyme.html http://www.lewport.wnyric.org/jwanamaker /animations/Enzyme%20activity.html Enzyme ActionEnzyme-Substrate Complex Substrate- substance needed to be broken down Active site- area on enzyme that is specific for and exactly fits the shape of the substrate (lock and key) – Substrate combines to enzyme’s active site – Enzyme breaks down substrate into products and releases them into the cell – Enzyme can be reused again – Ex- substrate sucrose + enzyme sucrase glucose + fructose Enzymes are catalysts and can be affected by pH and temp. changes in the body, and chemical reactions – Ex- enzymes that digests food works best at a specific pH – Ex- enzymes in body work best at temperature around 37oC Figure 2-21 Enzyme Action Section 2-4 Enzyme (hexokinase) Glucose Substrates Products ADP Glucose-6phosphate Products are released ATP Active site Enzyme-substrate complex Substrates are converted into products Substrates bind to enzyme Figure 2-21 Enzyme Action Enzyme (hexokinase) Glucose Substrates Products ADP Glucose-6phosphate Products are released ATP Active site Enzyme-substrate complex Substrates are converted into products Substrates bind to enzyme Figure 2-21 Enzyme Action Section 2-4 Enzyme (hexokinase) Glucose Substrates Products ADP Glucose-6phosphate Products are released ATP Active site Enzyme-substrate complex Substrates are converted into products Substrates bind to enzyme Figure 2-21 Enzyme Action Section 2-4 Enzyme (hexokinase) Glucose Substrates Products ADP Glucose-6phosphate Products are released ATP Active site Enzyme-substrate complex Substrates are converted into products Substrates bind to enzyme Question 1 How many covalent bonds does a carbon atom need to form in order to become stable? a. 1 b. 2 c. 3 d. 4 The answer is D. A carbon atom has 4 electrons available for bonding in its outer energy level and needs to form 4 covalent bonds in order to become stable. Question 2 A _____ is a biomolecule composed of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen with a ratio of about 2 hydrogen atoms and 1 oxygen atom for every carbon atom. It also is used for long-term energy and waterproofing. a. b. c. d. carbohydrate lipid protein lipid (fatty acid) The answer is D. Lipids are made mostly of carbon and hydrogen, and proteins contain nitrogen in addition to carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. Question 3 In which type of molecule will you find peptide bonds? a. carbohydrate b. lipid c. protein d. nucleic acid The answer is C. Amino acids are the basic building blocks of proteins and are linked together by peptide bonds. Question 4 What biomolecule is represented in this diagram? a. carbohydrate b. nucleotide c. protein d. lipid The answer is B. Nucleotides are the smaller subunits that make up nucleic acids. Nucleotides are composed of three groups: a nitrogenous base, a simple sugar, and a phosphate group. Question 5 Describe an enzyme and its function. An enzyme is a protein that enables other molecules to undergo chemical changes to form new products Enzymes increase the speed of reactions that would otherwise proceed too slowly Video 4 Enzymatic Reactions Click the image to play the video segment. Figure 2-19 Chemical Reactions Section 2-4 Energy-Absorbing Reaction Energy-Releasing Reaction Activation energy Products Activation energy Reactants Reactants Products Figure 2-19 Chemical Reactions Section 2-4 Energy-Absorbing Reaction Energy-Releasing Reaction Activation energy Products Activation energy Reactants Reactants Products Effect of Enzymes Reaction pathway without enzyme Activation energy without enzyme Reactants Reaction pathway with enzyme Activation energy with enzyme Products