Download sentence and clause - Professor Flavia Cunha

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SYNTAX OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE – 2014/2
Profª. Flávia Cunha
SENTENCES AND CLAUSES
-> Simple, Complex and Compound
->Complex sentences: dependent x independent clause
-> Formal indicators of subordination
-> Classification of clauses based on function: adjective, adverb and noun clauses
SENTENCE AND CLAUSE
Most people recognize a sentence as a unit which begins with a capital letter and ends with a
full stop (period), a question mark, or an exclamation mark. Of course, this applies only to
written sentences. Sentences have also been defined notionally as units which express a
"complete thought", though it is not at all clear what a "complete thought" is.
Syntactically speaking, sentences are traditionally classified as simple (consisting of one main
clause without subordination), compound (consisting of two or more main clauses that are
coordinated), and complex (consisting of a main clause with one or more subordinate clauses).
Clauses may be linked through coordination or subordination. Coordinated clauses are at the
same grammatical level, signaled by the actual or potential presence of coordinators between
clauses. Subordinate clauses are dependent on other clauses, either embedded in them or
loosely attached to them. They are signaled by subordinators or wh-words. Non-finite and
verbless clauses are generally subordinate.
There are many types of meaning relationships that can exist between two ideas. Words or
phrases that express these relationships are called connectors. The three main types of
connectors are: coordinating conjunctions, subordinating conjunctions, and sentences
connectors ( also, conjunctive adverbs).
Run-on Sentences and Sentence Fragments
All sentences are made up of two parts: the subject and the predicate.
If both parts aren’t present, then it’s not a whole sentence; it’s a fragment. Fragments don’t
express a complete thought, but they’re punctuated as if they were a sentence.
Examples: Felt happy and relaxed.
The sign on the door.
No subject
No predicate
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When she first came to school.
Subordinate clause
How to correct a fragment:
Add a subject:
I felt happy and relaxed.
Add a predicate:
The sign on the door was spelled wrong.
Connect to another sentence:
When she first came to school, she was tired.
If there are more than two parts not joined by a conjunction, then it’s not a sentence; it’s a
run-on.
Examples: I watch TV a lot my favorite show is The Simpsons.
I ran to my locker I forgot my homework.
The cat was angry, he scratched my brother’s arm, he bit him.
I went to the hospital I didn’t do my homework.
Poetry isn’t fun to write, I don’t know how to rhyme.
How to fix a run-on sentence:
Add punctuation: I watch T.V. a lot. My favorite show is The Simpsons.
Poetry isn’t fun to write; I don’t know how to rhyme.
Add conjunctions: I ran to my locker because I forgot my homework.
I went to the hospital, and I didn’t do my homework.
Combine the two methods: The cat was angry; he scratched my brother’s arm, and he
bit him.
COMPOUND SENTENCES – COORDINATION
COORDINATING CONJUNCTIONS
The coordinating conjunctions are and, or, nor, but, for, so, yet. These conjunctions have
the name coordinating which means that they connect structures that are the same. Study the
following examples:
Single Words
2 nouns
2 adjectives
2 verbs
2 objects
2 infinitives
Men and women are in that class.
My parents were poor but happy.
Last night I was sitting and thinking about you.
The computer is for the secretary but not for the students.
I have to write and to type this paper tonight.
Prepositional Phrases
a. This is still plenty of food in the living room and in the kitchen.
b. You can lie down on the bed or on the sofa.
Verb Phrases
a. I am sitting and writing a letter.
b. We were listening to the teacher but not understanding the lesson.
Dependent Clauses (Incomplete Sentences)
a. Where you go and what you do is none of my concern.
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b. We can talk while you are here or when you get home.
Notice that in the sentences given no punctuation is necessary. In the following sentences,
however, a comma is placed before each conjunction because it connects two independent
clauses (complete sentences).
Independent Clauses
a. Jim loves Sue, and she loves him.
b. They lived in her hometown, yet they were not happy.
Connecting Complete Sentences
When the coordinating conjunctions are used to connect two or more sentences, the
statements on both sides of the conjunction must have a subject and a verb.
a. I was going to call you last night, but my roommate was on the phone for three hours.
b. I was too tired to wait, so I went to bed.
When writing, put a comma in front of the coordinating conjunction when it connects two
complete sentences. If it connects single words, phrases or dependent clauses, no comma is
necessary.
a. I love you,but I can’t marry you.
b. I love you but can’t marry you.
Sometimes a comma is not necessary if the sentences are short, but it is always safe to add
the comma.
Meaning
AND shows addition.
a. The phone rang, and someone knocked on the door.
“And” sometimes shows cause and result.
a. The phone rang, and the baby woke up.
OR, NOR express an alternative or choice.
a. You can stay home and study for the test, or you can go out and enjoy yourself.
b. You don’t have to stay home, nor do you have to study.
Sometimes “or” expresses a condition.
a. I have to study for the test, or I will fail the course. (If I don’t study for the test, I will
fail the course.)
Often the word “else” is used with “or” to express a condition.
a. I have to study for the test, or else I will fail the course.
After “nor” the question word order is used.
a. I don’t speak French, nor do I write it.
b. I haven’t done my writing assignment, nor have I done the reading one.
BUT, YET show contrast.
a. Dr. Jones was very sick, but he taught his class.
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b. His voice was very weak, yet the students understood him.
The words “but” and “yet” are often used with “not”
a. His voice was very weak, but not inaudible.
b. He spoke slowly, yet not very clearly.
FOR introduces a cause or reason.
a. Dr. Jones couldn’t teach for the entire hour, for he had a sore throat.
In informal speech “because” is more common than “for”.
a.
Dr. Jones couldn’t teach for the entire hour because he had a sore throat.
Note: “for” only connects independent clauses (complete sentences).
SO introduces a result.
a. I’ve been studying hard all year, so I’m going to take a vacation during the summer
quarter.
Note: “so” usually connects only independent clause.
These words have different meanings, so they show different relationships between the ideas
in two sentences. However, the relationship is always logical: it makes sense. Look at the
following sentence.
a. The grammar test on tenses was very long, but it took a long time to finish.
This sentence has a subject and a verb in each independent clause. There is a comma before
the conjunction. Why does it sound “funny”?
The word “but” shows contrast, so after it we need a statement that contrasts with the first
one. “It took a long time to finish” is not in contrast to the first sentence. We need another
conjunction or a slightly different sentence.
a.
The grammar test on tenses was very long, so it took a long time to finish.
b. The grammar test on tenses was a very long, but it didn’t take a long time to finish.
Be careful of meaning all times.
CONJUNCTIVE ADVERBS
Here is a list of the most common conjunctive adverbs. Notice that some of them consist of
more than one word.
However
Furthermore
Therefore
Then
Nevertheless
Also
Consequently
Afterward
Still
Besides
Thus
Later (on)
On the contrary
In fact
As a result
Moreover
Hence
Otherwise
Like the coordinating conjunctions, these words also join complete sentences (independent
clauses) and express a logical relationship between the ideas in the sentences.
However, conjunctive adverbs cannot join single words, phrases, and incomplete sentences
(dependent clauses).
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Meaning
These words show contrast between the ideas in two sentences.
However
Still
Nevertheless
On the contrary
a. Studies show that cigarette smoking is dangerous to one’s health; however, millions
of people continue to smoke.
b. ; nevertheless, millions of people continue to smoke.
c. ; still, millions of people continue to smoke.
These words give additional information. They add additional information to the idea in
the first sentence.
Moreover
Besides
Furthermore
In fact
Also
“In fact” also adds emphasis to the idea in the first sentence.
a. Bill passed all his examinations; in fact, he graduated with honor.
b. His biology professor encouraged him to go to graduate school; moreover, he
nominated Bill for a graduate scholarship.
These words show a cause-result relationship. The second sentence gives the result of
the idea in the first sentence.
Hence
Therefore
Consequently
Thus
As a result
a. I can’t speak French very well; therefore, I didn’t enjoy my trip to France.
b. Many French people didn’t understand English very well; as a result, I used a lot of
gestures.
This word expresses a condition.
Otherwise
; if we don’t,
a. We must find solutions to the problem of pollution; otherwise, we may all be wearing
gas masks one day.
; if you are,
b. Don’t be absent from class; otherwise, you will miss the review.
The following words show a time sequence.
Then
Afterwards
Later (on)
a. The student demonstrators destroyed the student union; then, they marched toward
the library.
b. The campus police asked them to go home; afterward, the police began to arrest
some of the demonstrators.
c. At first, I was going to join the demonstrator; later on, I changed my mind.
Position and Punctuation
There are four punctuation patterns for complete sentences joined by conjunctive
adverbs. Study the position of the conjunctive adverb and the punctuation marks carefully.
Pattern 1: Conjunctive adverb between two sentences. (Note the semicolon and comma)
a. I’m studying English in Denver; however, my best friend is in Houston.
Pattern 2: Conjunctive adverb at the beginning of the second sentence. (Note the period,
capital letter, and comma)
a. I’m studying English in Denver. However, my best friend is in Houston.
Pattern 3: Conjunctive within the second sentence. (Note the period, capital letter, and
commas)
a. I’m studying English in Denver. My best friend, however, is in Houston.
Note: The conjunctive adverb is usually placed after the complete subject, in front of the main
verb or the auxiliary verb.
Pattern 4: Conjunctive adverb at the end of the second sentence. (Note the periods, capital
letter, and comma)
a. I’m studying English in Denver. My best friend is in Houston, however.
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IMPORTANT: Then, afterward and later (on) appear in pattern 1 more than in any other pattern.
However, these time words are not followed by commas.
a. I gave the instructor my test; then I asked about the third question.
COMPLEX SENTENCES - SUBORDINATION

Dependent and Independent Clauses
The device of subordination enables us to organize multiple clause structures. In
subordination it is useful to have a distinction between independent and dependent clauses.
By independent we mean a clause capable of constituting a simple sentence; whereas a
dependent clause is a clause which makes up a grammatical sentence only if subordinated to
a further clause.
e.g. It's late.
* Because it's late.
(correct : I'm going home because it's late.)
Dependent Clauses may be classified either:
a) by structure: clauses containing three major forms: finite, non-finite verbs or no
verb at all. ( the elements they contain), or
b)
by function: they may function as subject, object, complement, adverb, etc
(the structural position they have in the super-ordinate clause).

Formal Indicators of Subordination
Let's now consider the various ways in which the subordination of one clause to another
is indicated. On the whole, subordination is marked by some signal contained in the
subordinate clause. Such signal may be of a number of different kinds. It can be:
a) a subordinating conjunction (perhaps the most important formal device of
subordination) : simple (because, as , while, since, etc) , compound ( so that, in that,
such that, etc) and correlative (whether... or, so... as, etc).
b) a wh- element : in interrogative wh- clauses, in relative wh- clauses, and in
conditional-concessive wh- clauses: who, whom, whose, when, how, whatever,
whoever, whichever, etc.
c) the relative pronoun that
e.g. The bus that I took was crowded.
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d) subject-operator inversion is a marker of subordination in some conditional
clauses, where the operator is had, were, should.
e.g. Had I known more, I would have refused the job.
e) the absence of a finite verb form is effectively an indication of subordinate
status, since non-finite and verbless clauses occur only in dependent clauses.
e.g. Having arrived late, we decided to call it quits.
When in Rome, do as the Romans.

Classification of clauses based on function:
1. Nominal Clauses: clauses having a function approximating to that of a noun phrase.
2. Adverbial Clauses: clauses operating as adjuncts or disjuncts. In this respect, they are like
adverbs and are often commutable with prepositional phrases.
e.g. Compare: Because the pianist was ill, the concert was canceled.
Because of the pianist's illness, the concert was canceled.
3. Adjective Clauses (also called Relative Clauses): clauses acting as restrictive or nonrestrictive modifiers of noun phrases.
ADJECTIVE CLAUSES
A. As the name indicates, adjective clauses function as adjectives in a sentence; that
is, they modify specific nouns/pronouns by defining, identifying, describing, or giving other
additional information about the persons or things designated by the nouns. Adjective clauses
are introduced by a connecting word called a relative pronoun.
B. Adjective clauses follow the word/s they modify (refer to); then they are placed as
closely to them as possible so that sentences will not be ambiguous or seem absurd.
Note the difference in meaning that the position of the adjective clauses in the
following pair of sentences results in:
e.g. The book that I bought today is on the table.
The book is on the table that I bought today.
Now look at this sentence. Is anything wrong with it? Does it make sense? If it doesn’t,
how can it be corrected?
 I recently saw the girl on the bus that just spoke to you.
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C. Part of the adjective clause’s explicitness lies in the specifying power of the relative
pronoun. It is capable (a) of showing agreement with the head and (b) of indicating its status
as an element in the adjective clause structure.
Agreement is on the basis of a two-term ‘gender’ system, personal and non-personal.
Personality is ascribed basically to human beings but extends: to creatures in the supernatural
world(angels); pet animals(at least by their owners); collective nouns, when they have plural
concord.
D. Case is used to indicate the status of the relative pronoun in its clause. There are
two situations to consider:

if the pronoun is in a genitive relation to a noun head, the pronoun can have the form
whose :
e.g. The woman whose daughter you met is Mrs. Brown.
The house whose roof was damaged has now been repaired.
In cases like the latter where the antecedent is non-personal, there is some tendency to avoid
the use of whose and other alternatives can be found:
 The house the roof of which has been damaged has been repaired.
 The house that had its roof damaged has now been repaired.
 The house with the damaged roof has been repaired.

With a personal antecedent, the relative pronoun can show the distinction between who
and whom , depending on its role as subject of the adjective clause or as object of verb
or preposition in it.
e.g. the girl who spoke to him
the girl to whom he spoke
the girl who(m) he spoke to
the girl who(m) he met
E. In Restrictive Adjective Clauses, frequent use is made of a general pronoun that
which is independent of the personal or non-personal character of the antecedent and also of
the function of the pronoun in the adjective clause:
e.g. the boy that is playing the piano...
the table that stands in the corner...
the boy that we met...
the table that the boy crawled under...
F. Provided that the relative pronoun is not the subject of the adjective clause, a
further option exists in adjective clause structure of having no relative pronoun at all : the
clause with ‘zero’ () relative pronoun.
e.g. the boy we met ... ( whom, that)
the table we admire... (which, that)
the table the boy crawled under...(under which which/that....under)
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Restrictive and Non-Restrictive Adjective Clauses
Modification of the noun head can be restrictive or non-restrictive. If the head is viewed as a
member of a class which can be linguistically identified only through the modification that has
been supplied, then such modification is actually necessary, and we call it restrictive. Or it can
be viewed as unique or as a member of a class that has been independently identified; any
modification given to such a head is additional information which is not essential for
identifying the head, and we call it non-restrictive.
For example:
(1)
The box which is in the corner has got biscuits in.
(2)
Mary Smith, who is in the corner, wants to meet you.
In sentence (1), the noun head (box) is post modified by a restrictive adjective clause, which
gives essential information about this head, making it possible to identify it. The noun head
(Mary Smith) in sentence (2) is post modified by a non-restrictive adjective clause (set off by
commas) since Mary Smith’s identity is independent of whether or not she is in the corner,
though the information on her present location may be useful.
Now discuss the differences in meaning between two otherwise identical sentences due
to the omission or insertion of commas.
1. a) They have two children who are still at school.
b) They have two children, who are still at school.
2. a) Come and meet my wife who is a painter.
b) Come and meet my wife, who is a painter.
3. a) The pretty girl who is a typist is Mary Smith.
b) The pretty girl, who is a typist, is Mary Smith.
G. The relative pronoun in the adjective clauses can function as:
SUBJECT
The man who witnessed the crime is a lunatic.
The crime which was committed by the adolescent is now solved.
My friends, who surprise me quite often, will soon be visiting me
OBJECT
The man whom I admire the most is my brother.
I sent a letter which he never received.
OBJECT
OF
Tom saw the movie which we talked about. (Read the note below)
PREPOSITION
POSSESSIVE
The house whose roof has been restored will be sold.
The girl whose father will run the marathon is now 70 years old.
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NOTE: When the relative pronoun (expressed or understood) is the object of a preposition in
a restrictive adjective clause, the preposition is often placed at the end of the clause. In a nonrestrictive adjective clause, it is almost a general rule for the preposition to come before the
relative pronoun.
Two of the factors determining the placing of prepositions are:
a) Is the sentence spoken or written? If spoken, the preposition is much more likely to come
at the end of its clause.
b) Is the style formal or informal? If informal, the preposition is likely to come at the end of its
clause, even in written English.
There are, however, two other considerations, which concern the way in which the preposition
functions:
a) Verb + preposition combinations such as take after(= resemble) and put up with(= tolerate)
represent “new” words whose meanings are independent of their constituent elements. The
two elements (or three) are the inseparable, and the preposition must always follow the verb:
e.g. The person (that/whom) he takes after is his mother.
b) The preposition may, on the other hand, represent part of a prepositional noun phrase or a
prepositional verb phrase, and be independent of the verb in its clause. In this case, the
preposition often precedes the relative pronoun:
e.g. I can’t remember the name of the man to whom he gave the maney
H. Some nonrestrictive clauses comment on a whole idea in the main clause. These are
used most often in informal conversation and always begin with which.
e.g. Last week I returned from a three-week cruise, which was a relief.
Using which to modify a whole sentence is informal and occurs most frequently in
spoken English. This structure is generally not appropriate in formal writing. Whenever is it
written, however, it is preceded by a comma to reflect a paused in speech.
I. Adjective clauses may contain an expression of a quantity with of (such as all of,
most of, none of, many of, each of, two of) with the relative pronoun. The expression of
quantity precedes the pronoun and is preceded by a comma. Only who, whom, and whose are
used in this pattern.
e.g. I have five phone calls to make, all of which should be done immediately.
He gave several reasons, only a few of which were valid.
J. Relative adverbs where, when, and why function as relative adverbs. Where and when
can introduce restrictive or non-restrictive clauses, in the same way as which and who. Why
as a relative adverb introduces only restrictive clauses. These three adverbs can replace
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prepositions + the relative pronoun which when these prepositions refer to place, time or
reason
e.g. A spa is a place where/ to which you go either to exercise or relax.
Summer is the time when/during which many people take vacations.
You haven’t given me one good reason why/ for which I should agree with you.
Reduction of Adjective Clauses
A. We can delete relative pronouns if they function as objects, but they cannot be deleted if
they follow prepositions;
e.g. The letter (which) he sent was never received.
B. We can delete relative pronouns with auxiliary be in progressive or passive constructions.
In these cases, both the relative pronoun and be are deleted;
e.g. The cafeteria (which is) situated at the end of the hall is closed.
The customer (who is) complaining to the manager is my aunt.
NOTE: When there is no be verb auxiliary, change the lexical verb to an –ing form.
Eg. More than a billion people witnessed a concert which hosted over 60 acts.
More than a billion people witnessed a concert hosting over 60 acts.
C. We can delete relative pronouns with be + preposition phrases. Both the pronoun and be
are deleted.
e.g. Chairs (which are) in the conference room cannot be moved.
D. In an adjective clause with be + adjective, we can delete the relative pronoun and be, but
the adjective must be moved before the noun in the main clause.
e.g. Clients who are interested will always return.
Interested clients will always return.
E. In an adjective phrase with have and have not (possession or lack of possession), we can
delete the adjective pronoun and replace have or have not with with or without.
e.g. People ( who have) credentials can be hired.
With
ADVERBIAL CLAUSE
Adverbial Clauses are usually classified according to the meaning of the conjunction
that introduces them. As they operate as adjuncts or disjuncts, they are like adverbs and are
often commutable with prepositional phrases. Compare:
Because the soloist was ill, they cancelled the concert.
Because of the soloist’s illness, they cancelled the concert.
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Position and punctuation of Adverbial Clauses
Initial Position – An introductory adverbial clause is usually set off by commas, especially if
the clause is long. (However, there are variations in usage, sometimes even by the same writer).
This position gives more emphasis to the adverbial clause; it may also relate the clause more
closely to the preceding sentence. Generally, along adverbial clause before a short main clause
should be avoided to prevent the sentence from appearing “top-heavy”.
Mid-Position – (often after the subject of the main clause). Here the adverbial clause must be
set off by commas, since it acts as an interrupting element. An adverbial clause in mid-position
helps to vary the rhythm of the sentence.
Final Position – This is the most usual place for the adverbial clause. Clauses of time and place
(often also result, purpose, degree) in final position are generally not set off by commas. For
the other clauses, the writer uses a comma if he would pause before one of them in speech,
especially if the clause is long or is added as an afterthought.
NOTE: After the independent clause, a comma is usually used before the words “though”,
“although”, “even though”, “while”, “in spite of the fact that” because they often introduce ideas
that are unnecessary or connected loosely with the idea in the independent clause.
e.g. My sister has nightmares from Dracula movies, even though she is twenty years old.
I don’t watch them anymore, although they don’t frighten me anymore.
Summary Chart of Adverbial Clauses
Here we will look at subordinate clauses from the point of view of their meaning. The main
semantic types are exemplified in the following table:
TYPE OF CLAUSE
1. TIME
SUBORDINATING CONJUNCTION
after, before, when, while, as, whenever, since, until, till, as soon as,
once, as long as
2. PLACE
where, wherever, everywhere, anywhere
3. REASON/CAUSE
because, since, as, seeing that, in that
4. PURPOSE
so that, in order that, in case,
5. RESULT
so…that, such…that
6. MANNER
as, as if, as though
7. CONTRAST
Although, though, even though, despite the fact that, in spite of the
fact that, while, whereas, even if
8. CONDITION
If, unless, provided that, only if, whether or not, in case
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NOMINAL CLAUSES (also NOUN CLAUSES)
I.
INTRODUCTION
Just as noun phrases may occur as subject, object, complement, appositive, and prepositional
complement, so every NOMINAL CLAUSE may occur in some or all of these roles. But
occurrence of nominal clauses is limited by the fact that they are normally abstract, i.e. they
refer to events, facts, states, ideas, etc.. The one exception to this generalization is the
nominal relative clause, which may refer to objects, people substances, etc, and may in fact
be analyzed, on one level, as a noun phrase consisting of head and post modifying relative
clause.
II.
THE CATEGORIES
Nominal clauses (or clauses equivalent in function to noun phrases) fall into three major
categories:

The that-clause, or dependent declarative clause

The dependent interrogative clause (wh-interrogative and yes-no interrogative)

The nominal relative clause
The following words introduce noun clauses:
Who
whoever
whom
whomever
that
however
what
how much
whatever
how many
which
how often
whichever
how long
where
III.
why
whether (or not)
how soon
FUNCTIONS
These clauses can occur as:
FUNCTIONS
That-clause
Whinterrogative
1. subject


Yes-no
interrogative

Nominal
Relative

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2. subject complement




3. direct object




4. indirect object

5. object complement

6. adjectival complement

7. prepositional object
8. appositive









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Word Order of Noun Clauses
Noun Clause
SUBORDINATOR
SUBJECT
VERB
REMAINDER
I don’t know
where
Bob
went
I don’t believe
why
she
has left
last night.
the children alone.
NOTE: The subordinator introduces the noun clause that has its own subject and verb.
1) Noun Clause as Subject of a Sentence
Single-word or phrase
Noun Clause
His house is beautiful.
Our discussion was private.
Where he lives is beautiful.
That was excellent.
What she said was excellent.
What we talked about was private.
2) Noun Clause as Object of a Sentence
Single-word or phrase
I don’t know the answer.
Noun Clause
I don’t know what the answer is.
I don’t know him.
I don’t know who he is.
I like her house.
I like where she lives.
3) Noun Clauses as Objects of the Preposition
Single-word or phrase
She was looking at my painting.
I was worried about his healthy.
Noun Clause
She was looking at what I had painted.
I was worried about how sick he was.
NOTE: who versus whom whom is used if the verb in the noun clause already has a subject.
e.g. I never pay attention to whom my roommate phones.
I never pay attention to who phones my roommate.
4) Noun Clause as the Subject Complement
e.g. The problem is who we should invite.
Billy’s mistake was that he refused to take lessons.
5) Noun Clause as Adjective Complement
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As an adjective complement, the noun clause completes the meaning started by the
adjective. That is the most commonly used subordinator in this pattern; however, it can be
omitted from the sentence. Check the following examples.
e.g. Everybody is sad that Billy failed.
My mother is happy that my sister is getting married.
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