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C HAPTER
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11
The Principles of Ecology
Chapter Outline
11.1
T HE S CIENCE OF E COLOGY
11.2
R ECYCLING M ATTER
11.3
B IOMES
11.4
R EFERENCES
These brilliant red “feathers” are actually animals called tube worms. They live in an extreme environment on the
deep ocean floor, thousands of meters below the water’s surface. Their world is always very cold and completely
dark. Without sunlight, photosynthesis is not possible. So what do organisms eat at these depths? Tube worms
depend on chemosynthetic microorganisms that live inside them for food. In this and other ways, tube worms have
adapted to the extreme conditions of their environment.
All organisms must adapt to their environment in order to survive. This is true whether they live in water or on land.
Most environments are not as extreme as the deep ocean where tube worms live. But they all have conditions that
require adaptations. In this chapter, you will read about a wide variety of environments and the organisms that live
in them.
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11.1 The Science of Ecology
Lesson Objectives
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Distinguish between abiotic and biotic factors.
Define ecosystem and other ecological concepts.
Describe how energy flows through ecosystems.
Explain how food chains and webs model feeding relationships.
Identify trophic levels in a food chain or web.
Vocabulary
abiotic factor nonliving aspect of the environment such as sunlight and soil
biomass total mass of organisms at a trophic level
biotic factor living aspects of the environment, including organisms of the same and different species
carnivore consumer that eats animals
chemoautotroph producer that uses energy from chemical compounds to make food by chemosynthesis
competitive exclusion principle principle of ecology stating that two different species cannot occupy the same
niche in the same place for very long
decomposer organism that breaks down the remains of dead organisms and other organic wastes
detritivore decomposer that consumes detritus
detritus substance composed of dead leaves, other plant remains, and animal feces that collects on the soil or at
the bottom of a body of water
ecology branch of biology that is the study of how living things interact with each other and with their environment
food chain diagram that represents a single pathway through which energy and matter flow through an ecosystem
food web diagram that represents multiple intersecting pathways through which energy and matter flow through
an ecosystem
habitat physical environment in which a species lives and to which it has become adapted
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herbivore consumer that eats producers such as plants or algae
niche role of a species in its ecosystem that includes all the ways the species interacts with the biotic and abiotic
factors of the ecosystem
omnivore consumer that eats both plants and animals
photoautotroph producer that uses energy from sunlight to make food by photosynthesis
saprotroph decomposer such as a fungus or protozoan that feeds on any remaining organic matter that is left after
other decomposers do their work
scavenger decomposer that consumers the soft tissues of dead animals
trophic level feeding position in a food chain or food web, such as producer, primary consumer, or secondary
consumer
Introduction
Ecology is the study of how living things interact with each other and with their environment. It is a major branch of
biology, but has areas of overlap with geography, geology, climatology, and other sciences. This lesson introduces
fundamental concepts in ecology, beginning with organisms and the environment.
Organisms and the Environment
Organisms are individual living things. Despite their tremendous diversity, all organisms have the same basic needs:
energy and matter. These must be obtained from the environment. Therefore, organisms are not closed systems.
They depend on and are influenced by their environment. The environment includes two types of factors: abiotic
and biotic.
a. Abiotic factors are the nonliving aspects of the environment. They include factors such as sunlight, soil,
temperature, and water.
b. Biotic factors are the living aspects of the environment. They consist of other organisms, including members
of the same and different species.
The Ecosystem
An ecosystem is a unit of nature and the focus of study in ecology. It consists of all the biotic and abiotic factors in
an area and their interactions. Ecosystems can vary in size. A lake could be considered an ecosystem. So could a
dead log on a forest floor. Both the lake and log contain a variety of species that interact with each other and with
abiotic factors. Another example of an ecosystem is pictured in Figure 11.1.
When it comes to energy, ecosystems are not closed. They need constant inputs of energy. Most ecosystems
get energy from sunlight. A small minority get energy from chemical compounds. Unlike energy, matter is not
constantly added to ecosystems. Instead, it is recycled. Water and elements such as carbon and nitrogen are used
over and over again.
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FIGURE 11.1
Desert Ecosystem.
What are some
of the biotic and abiotic factors in this
desert ecosystem?
Niche
One of the most important concepts associated with the ecosystem is the niche. A niche refers to the role of a
species in its ecosystem. It includes all the ways that the species interacts with the biotic and abiotic factors of the
environment. Two important aspects of a species’ niche are the food it eats and how the food is obtained. Look at
Figure 11.2. It shows pictures of birds that occupy different niches. Each species eats a different type of food and
obtains the food in a different way.
FIGURE 11.2
Bird Niches.
Each of these species
of birds has a beak that suits it for its
niche. For example, the long slender
beak of the nectarivore allows it to sip
liquid nectar from flowers.
The short
sturdy beak of the granivore allows it to
crush hard, tough grains.
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Habitat
Another aspect of a species’ niche is its habitat. The habitat is the physical environment in which a species lives
and to which it is adapted. A habitat’s features are determined mainly by abiotic factors such as temperature and
rainfall. These factors also influence the traits of the organisms that live there.
Competitive Exclusion Principle
A given habitat may contain many different species, but each species must have a different niche. Two different
species cannot occupy the same niche in the same place for very long. This is known as the competitive exclusion
principle. If two species were to occupy the same niche, what do you think would happen? They would compete
with one another for the same food and other resources in the environment. Eventually, one species would be likely
to outcompete and replace the other.
Flow of Energy
Energy enters ecosystems in the form of sunlight or chemical compounds. Some organisms use this energy to make
food. Other organisms get energy by eating the food.
Producers
Producers are organisms that produce food for themselves and other organisms. They use energy and simple
inorganic molecules to make organic compounds. The stability of producers is vital to ecosystems because all
organisms need organic molecules. Producers are also called autotrophs. There are two basic types of autotrophs:
photoautotrophs and chemoautotrophs.
a. Photoautotrophs use energy from sunlight to make food by photosynthesis. They include plants, algae, and
certain bacteria (see Figure 11.3).
b. Chemoautotrophs use energy from chemical compounds to make food by chemosynthesis. They include
some bacteria and also archaea. Archaea are microorganisms that resemble bacteria.
Consumers
Consumers are organisms that depend on other organisms for food. They take in organic molecules by essentially
“eating” other living things. They include all animals and fungi. (Fungi don’t really “eat”; they absorb nutrients
from other organisms.) They also include many bacteria and even a few plants, such as the pitcher plant in Figure
11.4. Consumers are also called heterotrophs. Heterotrophs are classified by what they eat:
• Herbivores consume producers such as plants or algae. They are a necessary link between producers and
other consumers. Examples include deer, rabbits, and mice.
• Carnivores consume animals. Examples include lions, polar bears, hawks, frogs, salmon, and spiders.
Carnivores that are unable to digest plants and must eat only animals are called obligate carnivores. Other
carnivores can digest plants but do not commonly eat them.
• Omnivores consume both plants and animals. They include humans, pigs, brown bears, gulls, crows, and
some species of fish.
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FIGURE 11.3
Different types of photoautotrophs are important in different ecosystems.
Decomposers
When organisms die, they leave behind energy and matter in their remains. Decomposers break down the remains
and other wastes and release simple inorganic molecules back to the environment. Producers can then use the
molecules to make new organic compounds. The stability of decomposers is essential to every ecosystem. Decomposers are classified by the type of organic matter they break down:
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FIGURE 11.4
Pitcher Plant. Virtually all plants are producers. This pitcher plant is an exception. It consumes insects. It traps them
in a sticky substance in its “pitcher.”
Then it secretes enzymes that break
down the insects and release nutrients.
Which type of consumer is a pitcher
plant?
• Scavengers consume the soft tissues of dead animals. Examples of scavengers include vultures, raccoons, and
blowflies.
• Detritivores consume detritus—the dead leaves, animal feces, and other organic debris that collects on the
soil or at the bottom of a body of water. On land, detritivores include earthworms, millipedes, and dung beetles
(see Figure 11.5). In water, detritivores include “bottom feeders” such as sea cucumbers and catfish.
• Saprotrophs are the final step in decomposition. They feed on any remaining organic matter that is left after
other decomposers do their work. Saprotrophs include fungi and single-celled protozoa. Fungi are the only
organisms that can decompose wood.
FIGURE 11.5
Dung Beetle. This dung beetle is rolling
a ball of feces to its nest to feed its
young.
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KQED: Banana Slugs: The Ultimate Recyclers
One of the most beloved and iconic native species within the old growth redwood forests of California is the Pacific
Banana Slug. These slimy friends of the forest are the ultimate recyclers. Feeding on fallen leaves, mushrooms
or even dead animals, they play a pivotal role in replenishing the soil. QUEST goes to Henry Cowell Redwoods
State Park near Santa Cruz, California on a hunt to find Ariolomax dolichophallus, a bright yellow slug with a
very big personality. See http://www.kqed.org/quest/television/science-on-the-spot-banana-slugs-unpeeled for more
information.
MEDIA
Click image to the left for more content.
Food Chains and Food Webs
Food chains and food webs are diagrams that represent feeding relationships. They show who eats whom. In this
way, they model how energy and matter move through ecosystems.
Food Chains
A food chain represents a single pathway through which energy and matter flow through an ecosystem. An example
is shown in Figure 11.6. Food chains are generally simpler than what really happens in nature. Most organisms
consume—and are consumed by—more than one species.
FIGURE 11.6
This food chain includes producers and
consumers. How could you add decomposers to the food chain?
A musical summary of food chains can be heard at http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=TE6wqG4nb3M (2:46).
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Food Webs
A food web represents multiple pathways through which energy and matter flow through an ecosystem. It includes
many intersecting food chains. It demonstrates that most organisms eat, and are eaten, by more than one species. An
example is shown in Figure 11.7.
FIGURE 11.7
Food Web. This food web consists of
several different food chains.
Which
organisms are producers in all of the
food chains included in the food web?
Trophic Levels
The feeding positions in a food chain or web are called trophic levels. The different trophic levels are defined in
Table 11.1. Examples are also given in the table. All food chains and webs have at least two or three trophic levels.
Generally, there are a maximum of four trophic levels.
TABLE 11.1: Trophic Levels
Trophic Level
1st Trophic Level: Producer
2nd Trophic Level: Primary Consumer
3rd Trophic Level: Secondary
Consumer
4th Trophic Level: Tertiary Consumer
Where It Gets Food
Makes its own food
Consumes producers
Example
Plants make food
Mice eat plant seeds
Consumes primary consumers
Snakes eat mice
Consumes secondary consumers
Hawks eat snakes
Many consumers feed at more than one trophic level. Humans, for example, are primary consumers when they eat
plants such as vegetables. They are secondary consumers when they eat cows. They are tertiary consumers when
they eat salmon.
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Trophic Levels and Energy
Energy is passed up a food chain or web from lower to higher trophic levels. However, only about 10 percent of the
energy at one level is available to the next level. This is represented by the pyramid in Figure 11.8. What happens
to the other 90 percent of energy? It is used for metabolic processes or given off to the environment as heat. This
loss of energy explains why there are rarely more than four trophic levels in a food chain or web. Sometimes there
may be a fifth trophic level, but usually there’s not enough energy left to support any additional levels.
FIGURE 11.8
Ecological Pyramid. This pyramid shows how energy and biomass decrease from lower to higher trophic levels.
Assume that producers in this pyramid have 1,000,000 kilocalories of energy. How much energy is available to
primary consumers?
Energy pyramids are discussed at http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=8T2nEMzk6_E#38;feature=related (1:44).
Trophic Levels and Biomass
With less energy at higher trophic levels, there are usually fewer organisms as well. Organisms tend to be larger in
size at higher trophic levels, but their smaller numbers result in less biomass. Biomass is the total mass of organisms
at a trophic level. The decrease in biomass from lower to higher levels is also represented by Figure 11.8.
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Lesson Summary
• Ecology is the study of how living things interact with each other and with their environment. The environment
includes abiotic (nonliving) and biotic (living) factors.
• An ecosystem consists of all the biotic and abiotic factors in an area and their interactions. A niche refers to
the role of a species in its ecosystem. A habitat is the physical environment in which a species lives and to
which it is adapted. Two different species cannot occupy the same niche in the same place for very long.
• Ecosystems require constant inputs of energy from sunlight or chemicals. Producers use energy and inorganic
molecules to make food. Consumers take in food by eating producers or other living things. Decomposers
break down dead organisms and other organic wastes and release inorganic molecules back to the environment.
• Food chains and food webs are diagrams that represent feeding relationships. They model how energy and
matter move through ecosystems.
• The different feeding positions in a food chain or web are called trophic levels. Generally, there are no more
than four trophic levels because energy and biomass decrease from lower to higher levels.
Lesson Review Questions
Recall
1. Define biotic and abiotic factors of the environment. Give an example of each.
2. How do ecologists define the term ecosystem?
3. State the competitive exclusion principle.
4. Identify three different types of consumers. Name an example of each type.
5. Describe the role of decomposers in food webs.
Apply Concepts
6. Draw a terrestrial food chain that includes four trophic levels. Identify the trophic level of each organism in the
food chain.
Think Critically
7. Compare and contrast the ecosystem concepts of niche and habitat.
8. What can you infer about an ecosystem that depends on chemoautotrophs for food?
9. Explain how energy limits the number of trophic levels in a food chain or web.
Points to Consider
In this lesson, you learned how matter is transferred through food chains and webs. Producers make food from
inorganic molecules. Other organisms consume the producers. When organisms die, decomposers break down their
remains and release inorganic molecules that can be used again by producers. In this way, matter is recycled by the
biotic factors in ecosystems.
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• Do you think that abiotic factors in ecosystems might also play a role in recycling matter? In what way?
• What abiotic factors might be involved in recycling matter? For example, what abiotic factors might be
involved in recycling water?
11.1. The Science of Ecology