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Jillian Bertolucci August 24, 2012 Honors 101: Rome Imperator Caesar Divi Filius Augustus, to use his proper title, remains one of the most influential men in history. Octavian’s path to become Rome’s first emperor gives insight into Roman social values, behavior, politics, and culture of the time, as well as connections with the outside world. By transforming the disorderly Roman Republic into the orderly Roman Empire under imperial autocracy, the revolutionary Octavian laid the foundation on which Rome was built. In effect, he was Rome’s second founder, behind Romulus. His influence can still be seen in many aspects of Rome today, from its art to its diversity and culture. His Roman Empire, which lasted for half a millennium, instilled a loyalty and pride for Rome, which I argue, continues in Romans today. Gaius Octavius Thurinus was born to Atia, niece of Julius Caesar, and to Gaius Octavius, a knight from Velitrae who later became a senator and praetor. After Gaius Octavius died, the young Octavian was raised by Atia and her mother, the sister of Julius Caesar. Caesar saw talent in Octavian and encouraged him to get involved with public life at an early age by enrolling him as a patrician, which immediately set him apart from the plebeians. In 44 BC, news came to 18-­‐year-­‐old Octavian at his school, Apollonia, that his great uncle had been assassinated. In his will, Caesar adopted Octavian as his successor, leaving him with three quarters of his estate and allowing him to enter politics at the top. Octavian, on one hand, was an ordinary boy from the provinces, with a family that remained at equestrian status; but on the other hand, he was a boy with many aristocratic connections. “He was, in real life, the outsider-­‐insider of fairy tale and childish fantasy—a shepherd’s son who turns out to be of royal blood; like Rome’s founders, Romulus and Remus” (Everitt 58). The conspirators of Caesar’s death, “supposed that once Caesar had been eliminated, the Republic would automatically come back into being. Peace, order, and constitution government would resume without any further intervention on their part. This was a disastrous error in judgment,” (Everitt 56). Immediately, Octavian accepted his dead uncle’s name, becoming Gaius Julius Caesar Octavian and traveled to Rome. At this point, he was only a private citizen with no official position with a natural opponent: Mark Antony, the dictator’s trusted lieutenant. Mark Antony and Octavian held much distaste for one another, and both desperately wanted sole power. To succeed, Octavian knew he had to establish himself with Caesar’s friends and forces. Later that year, Octavian secretly set out to raise a private army from Caesar’s loyal legionaries, and he was met with great success. Cicero, who dominated the Senate at the time, addressed him in his Philippics, “Gaius Caesar is a young man…but one of incredible…and godlike intelligence and courage…He recruited a very powerful force of invincible veterans and lavished his inheritance—
no, lavished is not the right word, he invested it in the survival of the Republic” (Cicero 3.2). Surprisingly, to say the least, Cicero was applauding Octavian for his great success. At the time, it was uncommon for a private citizen with no official position, and military experience, to rise up to power. More importantly, both Octavian and Mark Antony knew they had to avenge the death of Julius Caesar and overtake Brutus and Cassius. Rome was in a state of hysteria and the people wanted revenge. The two joined forces in 42 BC at the Battle of Philippi in Macedonia, overwhelming Brutus and Cassius. After Philippi, Rome’s ancient ruling class and all of Caesar’s assassins had died, along with the Republic. Once Brutus and Cassius died, the Roman world was divided between Mark Antony in the east and Octavian in the west, working together as partners. This fateful division laid the foundation for the future of the Roman Empire. Sextus Pompeius was the last of the opposition of the Second Triumvirate, and after several losses, Octavian finally defeated him. This brought many honors to Octavian, and also gave him the upper hand over Antony. It was obvious that the two leaders were about to part ways. “Antony was an old-­‐fashioned kind of politician, who was happy with things as they were provided that he could maintain a leading role in public life. Octavian was a revolutionary, who meant to transform the Roman world” (Everitt 153). The beginning of this transformation, and the beginning of the formation of Rome as we know it, began in 33 BC. Octavian, along with his longtime friend and eventual deputy, Agrippa, began to bring concrete changes to Rome and its citizens in order to provide his regime legitimacy and prove to the public that he favored their interests. This first began with the move of politics from the noisy open-­‐air Comitia and Forum to the Palatine Hill. “Palatine” comes from the word “palace,” meaning a place where autocrats handled business in private. Today, this remains a beautiful, almost pastoral, space. It was one of my favorite places in Rome because of the juxtaposition with the crowded Forum below it. A feeling of serenity overwhelmed me as I walked through the beautiful gardens and ruins, and I believe that Octavian wished for this when moving up there. Octavian also moved his house to Palatine Hill to signify his position in the commonwealth. This also happened to be the area where Romulus lived, which associated Octavian, yet again, with Rome’s beginnings. By doing this, he demonstrated to the people that he stood for traditional values and the customs of their ancestors, mos maiorum. Additionally, at this point, Rome did not resemble the capital of a great empire in the slightest. The city had grown organically with no avenues, open spaces, or organization. The rich lived in houses with no windows to escape from the urban craziness, while the poor occupied insulae, or tall, poorly-­‐built apartments. The city was consumed by rancid smells from rubbish and sewage. There was an abundance of ready water; however, the rich were only allowed to tap the pipes, and average citizens had to travel to fountains. By investing in public services, Rome would receive recognition and worthiness of a capital and the quality of life of the average citizen would be improved. Also, by restoring the city’s ancient architecture, Octavian proved he was commitment to the antique values of Rome. This was obviously a crafted political move to gain support. By appealing to the old ways, it softened his intentions for revolutionary change. Under Octavian, the aqueducts were cleaned and Agrippa’s new aqueduct was created. Also, magnificent public baths were built, all of which were free for everyone. Olive oil and salt were distributed to all citizens, and at public events, tickets for free money, clothes, and barber services were thrown around. During this time, Antony was squandering time in the east with Cleopatra, who financed his ventures. The life of average citizens in Rome was extremely improved, and people from all walks of life felt the changes. To this day, the effects of his changes are seen around the city. Clean water still flows from fountains around the city for anyone to use, and the ruins of his bathhouses and those of subsequent emperors emulating him can still be seen. Mark Antony defied Rome in his pursuit for power and for the love of a foreign queen. He was married to Octavian’s sister, Octavia, but while in the east, his friendship and alliance with Cleopatra of Egypt progressed into a romantic relationship. Romans believed that “foreign genes should not be permitted to enter the Roman gene pool; only citizens could marry citizens, and to wed a foreigner was frowned on; if not illegal, such a union was unrecognized by the law, especially when it came acknowledging heirs in a will” (Everitt 150). It is unclear whether Antony and Cleopatra secretly wed, but their relationship was widely known, which disgusted many Romans, especially his brother-­‐in-­‐law, Octavian. This allowed for Octavian to establish them both as enemies of Rome, making Antony more of an outsider. Furthermore, Octavian illegally gained access to Antony’s will. In it, Antony wrote that he wished to be buried in Alexandria with Cleopatra. It was unheard of for a Roman public official to be buried abroad. This established the fact that Antony had officially been transformed into an easterner. After reading this, he immediately began construction of his own Mausoleum, which “remained the largest tomb in the Roman world” (Claridge 204). This further demonstrated how deep-­‐rooted Octavian’s allegiance and devotion to Rome was. He used this to campaign against Antony and gain firm control of Romans’ support, and eventually their trust. Civil war with Egypt followed soon after. At the Battle of Actium, Octavian defeated Mark Antony and Cleopatra, and both committed suicide quickly after. This left Octavian sole ruler of the entire Roman world. Many creative works of literature honored Octavian’s victory in the Battle of Actium. Most accurately depicted, and arguably most famous, is Virgil’s epic, the Aeneid, where the leading poet of the age writes, “High up on the poop [he] is leading The Italians into battle, the Senate and People with him, His home gods and the great gods: two flames shoot up from his helmet In jubilant light, and his father’s star dawns over its crest” (Virgil, Aeneid, 8.678-­‐81). Here, Virgil is demonstrating how this was prophetically engraved on Aeneas’ shield. Octavian is imagined as the head of Italy as he sets out to battle against the corrupt east with his adopted father’s star or comet shining overhead. When reading this, I get the sense that Virgil is deifying Octavian and creating a picture of a heroic triumph. The Aeneid remains the great national epic of the beginning of the Roman Empire. Additionally, many honors were bestowed on Octavian. Of all the honors, the senatorial decree that Octavian was most proud of was the ceremony for closing the gates of the Temple of Janus in the Forum. In paragraph 13 of the Res Gestae Divi Augusti, which is Augustus’ self-­‐written funerary inscription recording his life and accomplishments, he wrote, “It was the will of our ancestors that the gateway of Janus Quirinus should be shut when victories had secured peace by land and sea throughout the whole empire of the Roman people; from the foundation of the city down to my birth, tradition records that it was shut only twice, but while I was the leading citizen the senate resolved that it should be shut on three occasions,” (Güven 31). According to Everitt in Augustus, “That they were shut now was a great compliment to Octavian, and a symbol of the much heralded, much delayed arrival of peace throughout the empire” (Everitt 198). Janus was definitely looking forward to a long time of peace, known as the Pax Romana, that Augustus would bring and later be honored for. Along with his victory over Egypt, Octavian brought many obelisks back to Rome, which are now scattered around the city. These were constant reminders of the victory over Egypt. When I first went to Rome, the Egyptian Obelisks confused me, as I felt that they were out of place. What especially grabbed my interest was the large obelisk outside of the Vatican. Here is the center of the Catholic Church stands something decorated with hieroglyphics praising the Pharaoh of the time, as well as the Egyptian religion. This demonstrates the intricate connections between Egypt and Rome and between the Holy City and the Eternal City. Furthermore, Agrippa built the original Pantheon, meaning “all gods,” in 27 BC to commemorate the defeat of Antony and Cleopatra. Originally, it was a temple for worshiping all the gods. Today, it is a practicing Catholic Church, and can now be thought of as meaning “the all god.” The Pantheon is a prominent landmark in Rome still today. Its grandeur is breathtaking, and it is amazing to me that it is still in perfect, working condition 2000 years later. We were fortunate enough to attend mass on Pentecost Sunday at the Pantheon when in Rome. At the end of the ceremony, literally hundreds of thousands of red rose petals were dumped through the oculus at the top of the dome with beautiful music playing in the background. The splendor, history, and experience were overwhelmingly amazing! Now that Mark Antony was out of the picture, and Octavian brought back Egypt’s wealth and large army to Rome, he was easily in position to become dictator. Octavian knew better than to do this. For now, Octavian had to be patient and concentrate on winning over the hearts of the people and portraying himself as Rome’s natural leader. “Knowing the Senate was desperate for respect and peace, he disbanded his army and let the senate acquiesce in his growing influence” (Macadan 121). He cut his 60 legions down to a permanent 28 legions of 150,000 army men, which was the minimum amount needed to guard the empire. This was risky because, like Caesar, most of Augustus’ power came from control of the army. Additionally, Octavian had the burned down Senate House, renamed Curia Julia, rebuilt and opened for business. Although Octavian had every intention of becoming an autocrat, he carefully crafted a façade of a restored republic to eliminate the risk of suffering Caesar’s fate. He restored many republican institutions, yet he did not plan on relinquishing any real power. “He had to produce a system which would…on the one hand leave the empire under the strong unitary government it needed, but would also save Republican appearances and this content the nobility” (Grant 62). In 27 BC, Octavian systematically gave up his military powers. Shocked, the Senate granted, among many other things, a 10-­‐year-­‐command over the largest province in the Roman world, consisting of Spain, Gaul, and Syria. This gave him control over the majority of the army. He also held various civilian offices, allowing him to govern in the capital as if the Republic were still functioning. He was later rewarded tribunica potestas, allowing him to act as a tribune without holding post. This gave him the most power, as he was allowed to intervene in the Senate, presenting and vetoing laws. His carefully crafted façade made it seem as the Senate and magistrates held the power, but in actuality, Octavian autocratically controlled almost every aspect of the government and military, creating the Roman Empire. In the same year, the senate gives him the name of Augustus, meaning the “revered one.” In paragraph 34 of his Res Gestae Augusti, Augustus wrote, “For this service of mine I was named Augustus by decree of the senate, and the door-­‐posts of my house were publicly wreathed with bay leaves and a civic crown was fixed over my door and a golden shield was set in the Curia Julia, which as attested by the inscription thereon, was given me by the senate and people of Rome on account of my courage, clemency, justice, and piety,” (Güven 31). He was never referred to as emperor when he was alive, but as princeps, or “first citizen.” He later was given the title “Pater Patriae,” or Father of the Fatherland. He relied completely on his political and diplomatic gifts, loyalty, and connections. Augustus knew that Rome alone could handle the insurmountable challenge of running such a large empire, especially with the slow communication and dangerous travel. Augustus and Agrippa set out to tour from province to province, often being gone for several years. It was essentially like a modern day political campaign tour. This, however, was not enough. Although the eastern provinces were the richest, most developed, and most civilized, they lacked a stable government and failed at establishing security. Because of this, Augustus decided that the eastern people, especially the Greeks, must remain politically subordinate to the Romans. It is argued that another reason for this was Augustus’ harbored resentment for the east during the war with Antony and Cleopatra. After this, Augustus had a novel idea, envisioning Rome as the world leader, with Italy as its partner. Italia had hardly been thought of as a territory at this point, but many famous poets, such as Virgil and Horace, endowed it with its significance. For example, in the Aeneid, the gods did not allow Aeneas to settle anywhere else other than his goal of Italy (Virgil). Augustus caught on, and devoted himself to exalting Italy to partner of Rome. According to Michael Grant in The Twelve Caesers, “This formula, which set its seal upon the centuries that lay ahead, represented a progress in liberalization to the extent that the dominant role was at least extended from the capital to Italy as a whole” (Grant 60). The extension only reached Italy, as the purpose was to exclude other parts of the empire, and today, Italy is the only part of the Roman Empire to celebrate fully the Roman past. This discrimination in the political scene continued throughout the whole Augustan reign. Although easterners were allowed to govern their own cities, there was not one Greek Augustan senator, and it took 120 years after the Battle of Actium for a man from the east to hold office (Grant 61). The Pax Romana, or Roman Peace, is a term coined for the era following the appointment of Augustus in 27 BC until AD 180. During this time, Rome suffered from no major wars and only small scuffles. Augustus was most proud of the peace that he felt he restored. In 17 BC, the Ara Pacis Augustae, was dedicated in honor of the peace that Augustus had established throughout the Roman Empire. It sought to portray a visual reminder of the Julio-­‐Claudian dynasty as well. The altar depicts scenes of traditional Roman piety. It shows the emperor and his family offering sacrifices to the gods. Men, children, and women are all shown approaching the gods, as well. This shows the importance of religion as a civilizing force. It was set in the Campus Martius. Today, it stands alone in a quiet and peaceful museum adjacent to Augustus’ mausoleum and remains as one of the most famous surviving examples of Augustan sculpture. I truly felt a sense of peace when we visited the museum over summer. For the most part, the altar still looks immaculate, making it easy to imagine how magnificent the white marble once looked. The carvings are so intricate and detailed. There was so much to look at, yet it did not feel too overwhelming. In an edict, Augustus wrote, “May I achieve the reward to which I aspire…of carrying with me, wen I die, the hope that these foundations I have established for the state will abide secure,” and they have (Everitt 367). Still today, his work and influence is still felt and seen in Rome and the whole western world. Although much has changed and progress in Rome, the Augustan buildings and art still stand proudly in the city today, and state institutions have evolved down his foundational lines. His rule allowed the Mediterranean region to live in relative peace for 200 years—the longest extent in recorded European history. Augustus established urbanization and the Roman way of life and thousands of people were granted Roman citizenship. The most important impact of Augustus that is still felt today is the loyalty and gratitude towards Rome and the appeal to traditional values that he instilled in all of his people. What I noticed and loved most about Rome was the diversity of its people. No matter where they came from, all citizens proudly referred to themselves as Roman and everyone spoke Italian. I felt that it created a sense of strong unity and culture throughout the city. Augustus, and the people of Rome today, has inspired me to one day to move to Rome and call myself a Roman; and I will proudly do so. Works Cited Cicero, Marcus T. "The Third Philippic." The Online Library of Liberty. Liberty Fund,
2012. Web. 23 Aug. 2012.
Claridge, Amanda. Rome. 2nd ed. New York: Oxford University Press, 2010. Print.
Everitt, Anthony. Augustus. 2007th ed. United Kingdom: John Murray, 2007. Print.
Grant, Michael. The Twelve Caesars. 1996th ed. Michael Grant Publications, 1975. Print.
Güven, S. (1998). Displaying the Res Gestae of Augustus: A Monument of Imperial
Image for All. In Journal of the Society of Architectural Historians. Retrieved
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Macadam, Alta, and Annabel Barber. Blue Guide Rome. 10th ed. New York: Blue Guides
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Virgil. Aeneid. New York: Penguin Group, 2008. Print.