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Criticism of Catholic Church:
Contested papal elections
Relations of popes to church councils
Objections to church doctrines
John Wyclif (c. 1330-84)
No need to obey sinful pope
Importance of scripture over church teaching
Rejecting transubstantiation
1414 Suppression of Wyclif’s followers
(Lollards)
Jan Hus (c. 1369-1415)
In Bohemia. Mostly following Wyclif, but…
Lay folk should receive bread and wine at
Mass
Placed great importance on Eucharist
(sacrament of Lord’s Supper)
Jan Hus (c. 1369-1415)
July 6th 1415 Hus burned for heresy at Council
of Constance
c. 1436 End of Hussite rebellion in Bohemia
Criticism of Catholic Church: Behaviour of
Church and clergy, incl.
Selling of indulgences
(incl. plenary indulgences)
Simony and Pluralism
Other moral failings
Pardoners
Martin Luther (1483-1546)
1505 Swears to become monk
1507 Ordained priest
31st October 1517 Ninety-Five Theses or
Disputations on the Power and Efficacy of
Indulgences
Frederick III (the Wise) of Saxony
(r. 1486-1525)
1520 Luther excommunicated
Luther’s Ideas:
1. Salvation through faith rather than
good works (justification by faith)
2. Rejecting need for clergy or clerical
celibacy
Katharina von Bora (1499-1552)
3. Rejecting transubstantiation: body and
blood present “in, with and under the
elements”
Luther’s Ideas:
4. Rejecting sacraments of confirmation,
marriage, ordination, last rites and
(eventually) confession, only keeping
baptism and communion
5. Bible as necessary source of doctrine.
Produced German translation (1534)
Manifestations of the Reformation:
Importance of location: Holy Roman
Empire
Popular changes to church ritual
Anti-clericalism
Whole states or cities becoming
Protestant, such as…
…Nuremberg (March 1525), under influence
of humanists incl. Albrecht Dürer
Breaking with pope and Bishop of Bamberg
Spreading elsewhere incl. Bohemia,
Scandinavia (Lutheranism as official religion
of Sweden, 1527)
Formation of Protestant Leagues in Holy
Roman Empire
August 1526 Ottomans defeat King of Hungary
at Mohács
1529 Emperor Charles V decides to move
against Protestants
1531 Group of states in Holy Roman Empire
form Schmalkaldic League
1547 Charles V routs Schmalkaldic League,
reconverts about 30 cities to
Catholicism
1555 Peace of Augsburg: Cuius regio, eius
religio (Whose realm, his religion)
1524-26 German Peasants’ War
Impact of Luther’s reforms:
On the church
On the rulers and nobility
On the lower classes
Swiss Reformation
Anabaptists
Calvinists
Reformation in England
(Anglicans)
Catholic Reformation/
Counter-Reformation
Swiss Reformation: Huldrych Zwingli (1484-1531)
1518 Zwingli becomes priest of Zurich
Argues that Lord’s Supper is purely symbolic
Opposes clerical celibacy, monasticism, pilgrimages
indulgences, Purgatory, worship of saints
Swiss Reformation: Huldrych Zwingli (1484-1531)
Collection of tithes ended in city, clerical celibacy
denounced, choral singing and images removed
from churches
Zwingli’s ideas spread in Switzerland
1531 Catholic cantons attack Zurich. Zwingli killed,
but peace made
Anabaptists
Group led by Conrad Grebel (1498-1526)
Faith as choice while adult
Opposition to spreading religion using state
power
Jan 1525 Grebel conducts first adult baptism
Anabaptists/Rebaptists
Anabaptists
Anabaptism spreads in Switzerland, Holy
Roman Empire, Netherlands, Italy, Poland
1534-35 Radical Anabaptists hold Münster
Menno Simons (1496-1561) - Mennonites
John Calvin (Jean Cauvin, 1509-64)
1532 Converts to Protestantism
1534 Flees France, arrives in Geneva in 1536
Predestination, not works
Lord’s Supper – God spiritually present
John Calvin (Jean Cauvin, 1509-64)
Genevan reforms:
Simple church services
Moral reform of society
“You can do anything you want in Geneva as long
as you don’t enjoy it!”
John Calvin (Jean Cauvin, 1509-64)
1538 Calvin banished, recalled in 1541
1553 Burning of Michael Servetus
Consistory
Calvinism spreads in Netherlands, Holy Roman
Empire, Hungary, Poland, Scotland (Presbyterians;
John Knox), England (Puritans), France (Huguenots)
Reformation in England (Anglicans)
Henry VIII (Tudor, r. 1509-47)
1509 Marriage of Henry to Catherine of Aragon
(d. 1536), widow of Arthur (d. 1502)
1521 Henry writes book opposing Luther – “Defender
of the Faith”
Anne Boleyn (d. 1536)
1527 Pope refuses divorce
Reformation in England (Anglicans)
Cardinal Thomas Wolsey (d. 1530)
1533 Henry marries Anne Boleyn. Act of Restraint of
Appeals. Thomas Cranmer (d. 1556) annuls Henry’s
marriage to Catherine
1534 Act of Succession
1536 Act of Dissolution
Reformation in England (Anglicans)
Anglican church accepts salvation by faith,
transubstantiation, clerical celibacy; rejects
Purgatory, Cult of Saints
1533 Anne gives birth to Elizabeth
1536 Anne executed for adultery
Jane Seymour (d. 1537)
Reformation in England (Anglicans)
Anne of Cleves – “Flemish Mare”
Catherine Howard – executed 1542
Catherine Parr
Catholic Reformation/Counter-Reformation
Council of Trent (1545-63)
Pope Paul III
Reaffirms:
Church hierarchy
Seven sacraments
Transubstantiation
Purgatory and indulgences
Clerical celibacy
Charles V
Catholic Reformation/Counter-Reformation
Ignatius of Loyola (1491-1556)
Society of Jesus (Jesuits), approved 1540
Rigorous training
Advisors, missionaries
Link of Reformations to politics and identity
Detrimental effect on levels of tolerance
Church-state divisions?
On the Freedom of a Christian (1520)