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Chapter 1
Developing a Sociological Consciousness
But it is the right and the only way; and we may perceive in it a
clear suggestion that this lofty study should be reserved for the
highest order of scientific minds, better prepared than others, by
wise educational discipline, for sustained speculative efforts, aided
by an habitual subordination of the passions to the reason.
Auguste Comte, The Positive Philosophy,
translated by Harriet Martineau
CORE QUOTES
The following series of quotes may be viewed as representations of the central issues in
Chapter 1.
"What we think, how we feel, and what we say and do are shaped by our interaction with
other people." (text, p. 3)
"Action must be informed by knowledge." (text, p. 3)
"In sum, the sociological imagination allows us to identify the links between our personal
lives and the larger social forces of life--to see that what is happening to us immediately is a minute
point at which our personal lives and society intersect." (text, pp. 6-7)
". . . theoretical perspectives are tools. . . that allow us to visualize something. Any model
necessarily limits our experience and presents just one angle on a concept, but a good model also
increases what we can see. . ." (text, p. 18)
“Indeed, each [theoretical] approach is useful precisely because it provides us with some
piece of information regarding the exceedingly complex puzzle of social life.” (text p. 24)
"Science makes the assumption that every event or action results from an antecedent cause.
Indeed, a primary objective of science is to decide what causes what." (text, p. 25)
". . . different methods provide different windows on reality. . . what we find with one method
may be made understandable by examining data collected using another method." (text, p. 30)
"Yet sociologists confront a dilemma in conducting research. On the one hand, they must not
distort or manipulate their findings to serve untruthful, personal, or institutional ends. On the other
hand, they are obligated to consider people as ends and not means." (text, p. 35)
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Given these quotes, five major instructional objectives may be inferred. They are:
1.
Making clear the premise of sociology; that is, how sociologists view
human life generally and human behavior specifically;
2.
Identifying the stance that a sociologist must take in relation to his/her
subject in order to gather accurate information about human behavior;
3.
Reconciling the relationships between theoretical perspectives, research
objectivity and verstehen; i.e., showing that perspectives are not
necessarily a contradiction of objectivity and that they, in fact, improve
the researcher’s empathetic understanding of his or her research subject.
4.
Developing an understanding of the particular methods utilized in
scientific research;
5.
Identifying the specific research concepts and ethical guidelines
that direct each of the methods employed;
6.
Showing how research perspective affects what we discover.
FOCUS QUESTIONS FOR STUDENTS
The following questions are designed to orient student thinking to help them achieve the
instructional objectives identified above. While most may seem quite simplistic in nature, please
keep in mind that their primary purpose is to expose the "foundation" of beliefs and biases from
which the introductory student is likely to initiate an exploration into the field of sociology (I have
often found that the simplest question promotes the most thought and self-examination). This
exposure usually reveals an individualistic or psychological orientation which, by being made
"public" in the classroom, allows for a potentially spirited and intellectually challenging lecturediscussion. Such discussion allows the instructor to test student beliefs and ideas in the context of
sociological thinking. The instructor may find these questions worthwhile for structuring class
lecture material as well.
1.
What causes people to behave as they do?
2.
How do you know what you know? Why do you believe what you believe?
On what foundation(s) are your beliefs and knowledge substantiated?
3.
Do human beings have free will? How did you arrive at your answer?
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4.
What are the assumptions of science? What is your attitude toward
science? What is its value? Does a scientific approach to understanding
human life and behavior differ from your own? If so, how? Which
approach is more useful?
5.
The liberal arts and sciences have been described as fields of study
designed to "liberate" the student's thinking on various subjects. What is
your current understanding of the role and value of sociology as a part of
the liberal arts and sciences?
6.
What is the value of knowing the historical legacy of sociology?
7.
Is there a difference between being responsible for one's behavior and
being held accountable for one's behavior? If so, what is the difference?
How might this difference relate to the sociological view of human
behavior?
8.
What is the value of diversity and disagreement in sociological
conclusions about human life and behavior?
9.
Sociologists have been referred to as "professional peeping-Toms." Do
you hold this rather negative image of the discipline? Or, do you perceive
a number of valuable uses for sociological research? That is, does
sociology seem useful?
10.
After reading Chapter 1, what do you feel unsure about regarding the
premise, stance, and methodology of sociology?
PROJECTS AND WRITING ASSIGNMENTS
CRITICAL THINKING EXERCISE
As noted in the preface, one method of engaging introductory students with the subject matter
is to assign in-depth thinking and writing activities. Based on William Perry's model of critical
thinking, each chapter will include an alternative writing assignment whereby students are asked to
examine an issue based on three elements: values; facts; and applications.
Because of the significance attached to science and scientific methodology in Chapter 1,
students are assigned a paper in which they are expected to respond to the following questions:
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1.
What are the "facts" of science? That is, in reality, what IS science in its
most basic form?
2.
What are the "values" of science? That is, what do sociologists seem to
value most when they argue the necessity of studying human behavior
scientifically? What is the worth of studying people in this manner?
3.
Have you been changed by acquiring this understanding of science in the
context of sociology? How will you utilize your understanding of science
in the sociological setting?
Students Doing Sociology: Navigating across Campus
You can try out being a sociologist the next time you navigate crowded campus sidewalks and
intersections. On the surface, it seems that students simply walk to their next classes. But if you and
your classmates were to move like two sets of robots, each set maintaining its line of march, you
would constantly knock one another down. Somehow you manage to minimize collisions. What
crash-avoidance devices do you employ in routing your movement across campus? The sociological
perspective allows you to see the rules that govern your behavior as you cross campus. Students in
introductory sociology classes at Ohio State University examined the phenomenon of crossing
campus and identified a number of social mechanisms at work.
 Cultural rules assist us by providing guidelines for navigating walkways. They dictate that we
use the right side of the walk. They define for us the "first come, first through" principle at crowded
intersections. And they provide that men should defer to women, the young to the elderly, and the
able-bodied to the handicapped. We need not invent a new solution for each sidewalk encounter.
Instead, we employ common understandings or ready-made answers that were devised by earlier
generations of Americans. Accordingly, we do not cross the campus in a haphazard or random
fashion, but we move in accordance with established cultural formulas or recipes.
 Even if we were to program robots to remain on the right side of the walk, they would collide
at intersections. So in crossing the campus, we need to communicate our intentions. For the most
part, we accomplish this task on the nonverbal level. At about 15 or 20 feet, we ordinarily size up the
situation by glancing at pedestrians we are likely to encounter at an intersection and occasionally
establish fleeting eye contact with them. We then shut down eye contact until we are about 3 to 5 feet
apart. At this distance we establish brief eye contact, signaling to others that we recognize their
presence. However, we usually do not hold the visual contact unless we wish to take an assertive or
aggressive stance. Simultaneously, we mentally calculate our own and the other person's pace and
make appropriate adjustments to avoid a collision. In doing so, we may "negotiate" with the other
individuals -- we slow our pace to signal to them that we would like them to increase their pace, or
we quicken our pace to ask them to slow their pace. Additionally, we mutually inform one another of
our anticipated route through body language. We may incline our heads, shoulders, or bodies and
dart our eyes in the direction we are headed.
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 Numbers make a difference. The lone individual is at a disadvantage, and groups at an
advantage. A lone individual is likely to give way or detour around a group of people (even stepping
off the sidewalk), whereas a group is likely to ignore a lone individual and continue on course in an
assertive fashion.
 Pedestrians "compress" themselves in crowded settings. For instance, individuals cooperate
to effect a "clean pass." When they are about 5 to 6 feet apart, each person slightly angles his or her
body, turns the shoulders, and takes a slight step to the side; hands are pulled inward or away to
avoid hand-to-hand contact; bodies are twisted backward to maximize face-to-face distance.
Likewise, students often pull their backpacks or books toward a more central and less exposed
position.
 In the course of navigating campus sidewalks, people are constantly sizing one another up,
especially in terms of their basic roles and physical attractiveness. Men tend to hold their gaze longer
when looking at women than when looking at men. Likewise, men seem to be permitted greater
leeway in" looking over" women than women are permitted in "looking over" men. If individuals are
interested in one another, after a few paces they follow up with a backward glance.
INTERNET EXERCISE
Keeping in mind that websites and their addresses change rather frequently, an effective
activity for showing students the value of archival research is to utilize the U.S. Census Bureau home
page at http://www.census.gov/.
After reaching this site, the student is encouraged to click on various links such as "map
stats." Then, they might click on the state of their choice, then on a county, then on USA Counties
and year to bring up a statistical overview of population, housing, education, economic conditions,
and other socioeconomic data.
At this initial stage in the course, the activity will be particularly useful in helping those
students who may not yet be "computer-literate" to learn the process of utilizing "links" to locate
various types of data. This particular activity may also lend itself to a discussion of the dangers of
finding unreliable data while doing archival research on the Web.
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A TAXONOMY OF THE
SOCIOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVE
I. PREMISE:
A.
A person's thoughts, feelings, statements, and actions are shaped by social forces.
B.
The "Sociological Imagination" is an essential tool for effective sociological
research and effective living in a rapidly changing society.
C.
Science is the most accurate method for understanding the realities of society and
human behavior.
II. STANCE:
A.
Objectivity; "value-free" perspective
B.
Verstehen; the significance of understanding subjective "meanings" of behavior
III. METHODS:
A.
Experiments
B.
Surveys
C.
Observation
D.
Comparative and Historical Research
E.
Feminist Research Methods
F.
Multiple Methods
IV. IMPORTANT TERMINOLOGY:
A.
Variables: Independent and Dependent
B.
Correlation and Causation
C.
Experimental Group and Control Group
D.
Sampling: Representative and Random
E.
Observation: Unobtrusive and Participant
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RESEARCH JOURNAL ANALYSIS
1.
Choose a research article related to the study of sociology from one of the
journals listed below. Provide a citation that includes the title of the article,
the name of the journal, the page reference, and the date of publication.
2.
Identify the topic of research and the hypothesis or hypotheses to be tested.
3.
Identify the sample(s) tested by the researcher.
4.
Explain the methodology used by the researcher.
5.
Summarize the findings and conclusions.
6.
MOST IMPORTANT -- CRITIQUE THE RESEARCH. For example,
Is the article presented clearly?
Did the researcher use an appropriate sample?
Does the method measure what it is supposed to measure?
Can the findings be generalized to the research population?
Is the article biased by gender, age, race, or social class?
Does the researcher base her or his conclusions on the findings?
Does the work offer benefit for society?
7.
Type or computer print this assignment, double-spaced with the citation at the top.
Attach your copy of the article.
JOURNALS:
American Journal of Sociology
American Sociological Review
Criminology
Journal of Marriage and the Family
Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency
Sociology and Social Research
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Journal of Social Issues
Journal of Youth and Adolescence
Social Forces
Social Problems
Sociological Quarterly
Youth and Society
TIMELINE
One of the most controversial ideas students need to become familiar with is that promoted
by Mills, Durkheim, and others to the effect that environmental forces are the primary determinants
of our thoughts, feelings, and behavior. This emphasis on the social forces of society as the "molder"
of human personality is perhaps the most distinguishing element of sociology as an academic field of
study.
In order to see this connection between society and the individual, have students do the
following exercise adapted from David S. Adams, "Writing with Sociological Imagination: A TimeLine Assignment for Introductory Sociology," in Teaching Sociology, Vol. 14, July 1986, pp. 200203:
On the timeline drawn below, break down the top portion into the ten most significant
historical global events you can think of that have occurred since the year 1776. On the bottom
portion, break the timeline down in the ten most significant personal events in your life, from your
birth to the present moment.
Historical Events
1776
/_________________________________________________________
/
your birth
present
_/
Personal Events
After completing the exercise, reflect a bit and answer the following questions:
1.
How did you go about the process of determining the value of the events selected,
both personal and historical? That is, what method of elimination did you use?
2.
After comparing your responses on the timeline with those of other members of your
class, do you note similarities in the responses each of you has noted?
3.
Can you identify the primary "causes" of each event, both personal and historical?
Are the causes of historical events similar to those of the personal ones?
4.
Are the "causes" noted of a biological nature? Did the events seem to come about
primarily due to the "free will" of individuals acting independently of any outside
influence? Did the events occur primarily as consequences of environmental (social)
forces?
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5.
Are you able to discern any connection or intersection between the historical events
selected and those of your own personal life? If so, you may have discovered what
Mills meant by "The Sociological Imagination."
6.
What have you learned from the exercise? Has it influenced the way you understand
how the world works and how you behave? How? What questions are raised for you
as a consequence of doing this exercise?
THE LOGIC OF SCIENCE: ANTECEDENT CAUSES
A project that may be done individually, as a group activity, or both, incorporates the
sociological imagination with the scientific premise that all events result from prior events. The
project is reminiscent of a paradigm I encountered in my first undergraduate sociology class in which
a model was produced which showed how James Watt's steam engine was responsible for the
Industrial Revolution, which in turn produced the Urban Revolution, which in turn produced (among
other changes) a liberalization of social attitudes regarding marriage and family, which in turn led to
increasing divorce rates.
In order to assist students in understanding how social changes produce such "chains" of
causes and effects, students are asked to draw a paradigm like that of the steam engine-divorce rate
example. However, in this case they are asked to begin their model development with the invention
of the personal computer, extending the cause-effect chain fifty years into the future. They are
encouraged to ask themselves questions such as: How will the pc ultimately affect the world of
work? How will the pc ultimately alter family relationships? How might education be affected by the
pc in the long run? What impact will the pc have on crime, social class, poverty, environment,
government, the potential for war, etc.?
An optional approach to this assignment, depending upon class size, is to ask students to do
the assignment individually. Then, on the day the assignment is to be handed in, students are
assigned to small groups and asked to share personal models and combine their efforts into a single
group paradigm. Group models are put on the board and explained verbally. Students are encouraged
to look for variations as well as similarities in the group models produced. The models are then
critiqued in terms of existing social facts. The concept projection is contrasted with prediction in
the process.
This model-building exercise offers many possible applications in addition to the antecedentcause focus of science. Other applications include an additional recognition of the validity and
importance of the sociological imagination, the importance of preparing for the future in a rapidly
changing cause-and-effect world, and the value of diversity in perspectives of society and social
change
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UNDERSTANDING RESEARCH METHODS
Another small group activity requires that students read the text material on research methods prior
to doing the exercise. This project is particularly useful in developing an understanding of survey,
experimental, and observational methods of research. The activity further provides an opportunity for
students to learn about social research by "doing" research through the planning stages. This, in turn,
lends a bit of interest and enjoyment to learning about social theory and research methods--topics
that traditionally don't send students to the edges of their seats while screaming "More!"
In this case, students are assigned to one of three different groups. One is designated as the
SURVEY GROUP, another the EXPERIMENTAL GROUP, and the third the PARTICIPANT
OBSERVATION GROUP. Students are then asked to identify a number of what they perceive to be
current, serious social problems. Each problem identified is noted on the board. Each group is then
asked to develop a measurable research question about any one of the problems identified.
After developing and then explaining their research question to the rest of the class (with
facilitation by the instructor), each group is then instructed to formulate a research plan based on the
particular method assigned them. After doing this (again, with individual assistance from the
instructor), representatives from each group "teach" their research method to the rest of the class by
applying the method to the specific example selected. A discussion of the advantages and limitations
of each method follows.
A caveat here is that the instructor must be immune to a rather huge amount of class
confusion. He or she must also be assertive in keeping each group focused on the task. Nevertheless,
the activity will pay dividends by encouraging students to read the chapter material, by proving the
value of scientific measurement, and by teaching students about concepts such as random sampling,
representativeness, research bias, and research ethics. The activity will take a few class sessions to
complete, but it will offer a much greater depth of understanding and appreciation than would a
straight lecture method of teaching this topic.
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QUIZ
Fill-In-The-Blanks
1.
According to the text, "action must be informed by ___________________."
2.
__________________ pursues the study of people and their behavior through research
governed by the rigorous and disciplined collection of data and analysis of facts.
3.
In order to illustrate the value of the ___________________________, the text utilizes Elliot
Liebow's research and subsequent book, Tally's Corner.
4.
According to C. Wright Mills, the ability to see our private experiences and personal
difficulties as, in part, a reflection of the history and nature of society is called the
_____________________________.
5.
According to C. Wright Mills, personal character is less important as an explanation of
problems such as unemployment than is the _________________________.
6.
Like Auguste Comte, ________________________ argued that the study of society needed
to utilize the methods of scientific inquiry.
7.
______________________ is an investigative view that focuses on the "big picture" of
society by examining the large-scale and long-term processes of organizations, institutions, and
broad social patterns.
8.
_______________________ is an investigative view that focuses on the "up-close and
personal" picture of society by conducting a detailed examination of what people say, do, and think
as they go about their daily lives.
9.
_______________________ is given credit for being the founder of sociology.
10.
Max Weber utilized the German term ____________________ in espousing the importance
of examining the subjective "meanings" that people bring to their interactions with others.
Answer Key:
(1) knowledge
(2) Sociology
(3) sociological perspective
(4) sociological imagination
(5) structure of society
(6) Harriet Martineau
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(7) Macrosociology
(8) Microsociology
(9) Auguste Comte
(10) verstehen
FILMS/VIDEO & AUDIO
Behavioral Sciences (1995). This video explores the "nature-nurture debate," assessing how social
behavior is a combination of genetics and social learning. The presentation may lean a bit more
toward the "nature" side of the debate than some sociologists will prefer, but this assessment can still
be useful for your introductory class.
Finnish American Lives (1982). This award-winning film, produced and directed by a sociologist,
serves as an example of good sociological fieldwork in its documentation of an extended Finnish
family.
From Social Interaction to Social Structure (1991). This film details the cause-effect sequence of
social interaction to social structure to social groups to the formation of societies.
Future Shock (1972). An excellent historical example of the importance of the sociological
imagination. This film was developed at a time when many students were just being born, and
therefore serves as a retrospective picture of social change.
Research Methods (1990). This program addresses the impact that social science research can have
on the average person, explaining what sound scientific research methods are and what makes these
methods so important. Emphasis is placed on psychological research, but the discussions in the
video are relevant to social problems.
Social Interaction, Conflict, And Change (1991). This presentation examines how people and
communities are affected by social conflict and social change. Role conflict and role strain are
mirrored in a variety of illustrations. The video also makes clear how social stratification, prejudice,
discrimination, power, and collective behavior affect the processes of social change.
Societies (1991). This program demonstrates how small, moderate, and complex societies each
satisfy basic human needs. Looking at different societies within the United States, the presentation
illustrates how societies change over time with respect to size, technology, and social structure. The
evolution of social relationships as societies become larger and more complex is examined. The
video also provides a glimpse of how international social changes have affected both nations and
societies.
Sociological Imagination (1991). This is a series of over 20 videos, each 30 minutes in length, that
have been constructed specifically for use in college-level introductory sociology courses. Specific
installments in this series will be listed elsewhere in this manual.
Sociological Thinking and Research (1991). This film examines aspects of the scientific method
through William Kornblum's example of research on urban renewal around New York's Times
Square.
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Theory (1979). The universal need to tell stories, to explain what has happened and what structures
the universe and the individual's experience is the foundation of theory making. This film permits
the viewer to understand how theory functions in explaining phenomena.
Truth And Consequences: Is America Going Downhill? (2000). This series poses the question
of what has become of the classic American virtues of good manners and honesty and argues that
changes in the American character have promoted a pervasive attitude of me first and anything goes.
Writing For The Social Sciences (1991). This video illustrates procedures for technical writing
with lively examples that are relevant to introductory sociology issues. The program teaches viewers
how to restate or paraphrase a written work in the social sciences and how to condense it into a
summary. If you plan to emphasize research methods in your course, this presentation could be
helpful.
READING RESOURCES
BOOKS:
Bendix, Reinhard. Max Weber: An Intellectual Portrait. 1960. New York: Doubleday & Company,
Inc. A thorough, understandable, and enjoyable summary of the work of Max Weber.
Berger, Peter L. Invitation to Sociology: A Humanistic Perspective. 1963. New York: Doubleday &
Company, Inc. A classic view of the humanist tradition in sociology. An important and enjoyable
book with many applications to the introductory course.
Charon, Joel M. Ten Questions: A Sociological Perspective (2nd ed.). 1995. Belmont: Wadsworth
Publishing Company. A terrific book that identifies essential questions for the student of society.
Chase, Stuart. The Proper Study of Mankind. 1963. New York: Harper & Row Publishers, Inc. A
classic explanation of the social sciences, their separate and collective value.
Donald, J.G., and A.M. Sullivan. Using Research to Improve Teaching. 1985. San Francisco:
Jossey-Bass. An introduction to better teaching within the classroom context.
DuBois, W.E.B. The Philadelphia Negro: A Social Study. 1967. New York: Schocken. This book,
originally published in 1899, offers insight into the development of social research methods while
serving also as one of the first explorations into the issue of race.
Johnson, Allan G. The Forest For the Trees: An Introduction to Sociological Thinking. 1991.
Orlando: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, Inc. This book expresses an alternative to psychological
individualism. It proves the value of thinking about and understanding social systems.
Martineau, Harriet. Society in America. 1962. New York: Doubleday & Company, Inc. This book,
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originally published in 1837, explores the nature of the "American character" during the earlier years
of the country's evolution.
McKinney, Kathleen, and James Sikora. Resources Book for Teaching Introductory Sociology.
1990. Washington, D.C.: ASA Teaching Resources Center, Stock #156. This resource offers a
wealth of teaching ideas for the introductory course.
JOURNAL:
Teaching Sociology. Published by the American Sociological Association, this invaluable journal
offers tested classroom techniques for teaching the discipline as well as book and film reviews.
Loaded with resources.
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