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Chapter 1
We live in the information age. Through the use of different digital technologies, we now
can easily search, create, and distribute all kinds of information. Computer systems are
vital part of today’s world. Mankind has advanced through many ages from the Stone
Age to the Industrial Age. Today, we live in the Information Age, a period in history
when information is easy to access and affects many aspects of everyday life. The
primary factors driving us forward are the digital devices we use in business and our
everyday lives.
This digital revolution is an ongoing process of social, political, and economic change
brought about by digital technology, such as microchips, computers, and the Internet. It
has affected our daily lives in many ways, from the way we communicate to the way we
entertain and to the way we travel and commute. The digital revolution requires us to
modify and adjust our ways of looking at and dealing with some of the most basic
functions in our work and personal interactions.
Chapter 2
Computers are devices that process data, store data, and produce information. Digital
data is acquired, processed, stored, and transmitted using a variety of devices from large
computers to Smartphones. While digital content is stored using ones and zeros, it is
displayed in the format we would expect of that specific content.
Today, most of the digital data is stored using binary digits, commonly referred to as
bits. A bit is either a 1 or a 0. Computers use the binary number system (base 2) to
perform arithmetic operations.
Numeric data consists of numbers that can be used in arithmetic calculations. Character
data is composed of letters, numbers (not used in calculations), and special characters
(symbols). Character data is commonly referred to as text.
There are two fundamental types of components found in every computer—hardware
and software.
Software is a collection of computer programs (computer instructions) that perform a
specific task. There are two different types of software developed for different purposes,
including system software (operating systems and utilities), and application
software (software developed for certain applications such as entertainment, banking,
education, social networking, and so forth),
Computer hardware is the computer equipment that, along with software, performs the
input, processing, output, and storage functions. Hardware is generally anything you
can touch inside and outside the computer.
The most common computer hardware for data input is the keyboard and the mouse.
Other input devices include scanning equipment and touch screens.
Processing devices including circuit boards and chips (such as the central processing
unit and memory) are also computer hardware.
The most common output devices are printers and screens.
There are also storage devices, which include built-in storage: hard disks or solid state
drives, and removable devices such as DVDs, memory cards, and USBdrives.
Processor
The most important hardware component of every digital device is the microprocessor
(or simply the “processor”). The CPU (Central Processing Unit ) Consist of two
components:
 The ALU (arithmetic logic unit) performs arithmetic and logical operations.
 The control unit, which fetches, stores, and manages the executions of the
instructions.
Memory
There are two main types of computer memory: RAM (Random Access Memory) and
ROM (Read Only Memory).
RAM is a temporary holding area for data or instructions. RAM is volatile, meaning that
it can only hold data while it is electrically powered. RAM accesses the data/instructions
stored in it faster than the hard drive, making the execution of computer tasks more
rapid. The size of the RAM is important for certain activities such as computer games or
mathematical calculations where a large amount of data and instructions are processed.
ROM is more permanent and non-volatile. It contains hard-wired instructions for the
device. The instructions stored there do not change even if the device is not powered on.
The boot loader – instructions that tell a digital device how to start when powered on –
is an example of the instructions stored in the ROM
Storage
There are four main types of storage options: Magnetic, Optical, Solid State, and Cloud.
 The most common magnetic storage device is a hard disk drive. Data is stored
there using magnetic particles representing ones and zeros on the surface of a
disk. They come in various sizes depending on need. In the past, cassette tapes
and floppy disks were magnetic devices for data storage.
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Storage devices using optical storage technologies including CD, DVD, and Bluray Disc (BD), represent data as microscopic light and dark spots on the disc
surface. These devices come in three categories; read-only, recordable, and
rewritable.
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Read-only means the data is already on the disc and cannot be modified.
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Recordable means you can record and store data on the disc, but once it is
recorded it cannot be changed. These discs are labeled asCD-R, DVD-R,
or BD-R (R for recordable).
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Rewritable means the discs can be written, erased, and re-written again
many times. These discs are typically used for temporary storage or for
transferring data from one device to another.
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Solid state storage devices store data in erasable, rewritable circuitry. They
provide fast access to data because they include no moving parts like magnetic or
optical devices do. Once the data is stored in a solid state device, it is non-volatile.
Solid state storage devices include solid state drive (SSD, which can be used as a
substitute for a hard disk drive), memory cards, andUSB flash drives (jump
drives, thumb drives, or data sticks).
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In contrast to the above discussed “local” storage devices, remote storage is the
type of device that can be accessed from a network. Remote storage may be
available on a home, school, or work network. When a remote storage is available
as an Internet service, it is called “cloud storage.” Apple iCloud, Microsoft
OneDrive, Google Drive, and Dropbox are examples of cloud storage. While most
cloud services offer a generous amount of free storage space, they do have
security and privacy risks as well as service outages and discontinuation of
services concerns. Security and privacy risks can occur due to inherent
weaknesses in the networks and the cloud storage sites. In the case that a cloud
storage site has an outage, the data stored in the cloud will become inaccessible
and can disrupt the activities of businesses and individuals. When a cloud storage
provider closes its business, it is called “discontinuation of service.” This can
happen with little or no notice. Because of this, you should be very careful of what
you store in the cloud.
Chapter 3
The Internet, like many other innovations, had its beginnings with the
government. ARPANET (Advanced Research Projects Agency Network) was
created to allow scientists to share information in 1969. It was command-line
primitive, but by the 1990s user-friendly tools became available and today there
are over two billion users on it. People can access Internet through ISPs (Internet
Service Providers) for a fee.
Protocols and Domain Names
When transmitting data, nodes must follow certain rules to be able to connect to
each other. These sets of rules are called “communications protocols,” and the
process of connecting is called “handshaking.”
Everyone on Internet has Internet address. These addresses are controlled by IP
(Internet Protocol). Since remembering all of the numeric names for all of the
nodes is problematic for humans, domain names were created such as
Hindscc.edu. Domain names are translated into Internet addresses by DNS
(Domain Name System). DNS servers contain a list of all domain names and their
corresponding IP addresses. A domain name, like a file name, consists of two
parts, a name and an extension. The most common extensions are .com, .edu,
and .org. The name and extension are separated by a period.
Internet Connections
In today’s world, most people like to have their own Internet connection (usually
at their home). There are a number of ways individual locations can be connected
to Internet.
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Cable Internet Service Provider (ISP) uses the same Cable TVinfrastructure to
bring Internet connections to its subscribers. The cable modem converts signals
from your computer to signals that can travel over the cable infrastructure.
Another very common service is through the telephone company. There are four
types of service offered: dial–up, ISDN, DSL, andFTTH.
Dial-up is the oldest and slowest offering. It uses sound waves and needs a
modem to convert digital signals to audio signals and back to digital signals at the
receiving location. Dial-up uses circuit switching to connect the source and
destination locations.
DSL (Digital Subscriber Line) is a much more common and faster service. It still
uses phone lines, but it uses digital signals.
ISDN (Integrated Services Digital Network) divides a telephone line into two
channels: one for voice, one for data. It requires specific equipment.
Fiber to the Home (FTTH) uses fiber-optic cables rather than coaxial cables to
bring the connection to the terminal location.
Another means of connecting to Internet is via Satellite Internet Service. Signals
are sent or received using an individual dish antenna through a satellite. This can
be an independent setup, or it can be coupled withTV.
Mobile Broadband Service uses smartphones and radio signals to transmit voice
and data. This service has gone through generations of technology; the most
recent are 3G and 4G. 3G (third generation) became available in 2001, while 4G
(fourth generation) became available in 2011.
The World Wide Web (WWW) or as it is commonly known, the Web, is a
technology that uses the Internet with a protocol called HTTP (Hyper Text
Transfer Protocol) to communicate using hyperlinks (also called hypertext).
The Web is made up of Web sites that contain related information and are made
up of one or many Web pages. The pages of a Web site are linked by hyperlinks
that are underlined or colored words, but they can be photos or buttons or other
graphic items as well. Every Web page has a unique identifier called a URL
(Uniform Resource Locator). URLs can become quite long.
HTTP works with www to transfer and display Web pages on a local browser.
Communication between your browser and Web servers occurs. When a URL is
entered, the browser attempts to establish an HTTP session and retrieve data
from the Web server through commands called HTTP methods (such as GET,
POST, and HEAD), and displays the content on the screen. The “404 Not Found”
message is generated when the requested resource does not exist.
Social Media
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Social media has spread across the globe. It facilitates self-presentation,
information sharing and communicating, and relationship building among
networked individuals via text, pictures, video, and audio. While it transforms the
ways we connect, interact, and share, it also raises some legal and ethical
concerns.
Most people think social networking is a relatively new phenomenon, but actually
it has been around for decades. It is a means of virtual interaction where people
share information, pictures, and other media regarding their lives and opinions
on different issues.
Network media are a collection of tools that are used to share information and
can be categorized into the following four main groups.
The first is social networking, which requires an online presence and is typically
used to communicate with family and friends. Facebook and Twitter are excellent
examples of social networking.
The second group is geosocial networking, and it is used to find locations, events,
and people. Yelp is an example of geosocial networking.
The third group is content communities, and it is used for sharing media such as
videos, pictures, and topical information. YouTube and Instagram are examples
of content communities.
The fourth group is online communications, and it is used for sending messages
to one or many people. Snapchat and Skype are examples of online
communication
Chapter 4
Application Software
This type of software is developed for various purposes, from education to
entertainment, graphic design, banking, travel arrangements, and social
interaction. These various applications can be accessed via smartphones, web
browsers, tablets, desktops, or laptops.
Web applications (apps) are software that is accessed with a web browser. These
applications are not installed on the user’s computer, but instead the code for
web apps is downloaded along with Web pages and is executed by the browser.
Gmail, Google Docs, and blackboard learning management systems are typical
examples of Web apps. When using Web apps, usually your data is stored on the
app’s Web site, and you can access your data from any location using any device
that has web access.
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Productivity software helps get your work done. Office Suite packages are
software of this type. An office suite is a collection of programs that make your
daily work more efficient. The programs are also called modules, which include
word processing, spreadsheets, presentations, databases, calendars, and contact
manager modules. MSOffice, Google Docs, Apache OpenOffice, and Apple iWork
are examples of office suite packages.
Word Processor- This allows the user to type a letter, memo, or other document
using the computer’s keyboard.
This software also allows the user to manipulate the text—edit, search, and
replace, format, spell-check, and insert multimedia—giving it much greater
power and flexibility than a mechanical device.
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Spreadsheet- Spreadsheets are two-dimensional tables that allow you to create,
store, and access data using rows and columns.
They had their beginning in accounting, but people quickly discovered many
other uses such as budgeting, computing grades, tracking investments, and
estimating project costs.
Spreadsheets are very powerful when manipulating data, creating what-if
analysis, and using formulas.
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Presentation Software - Presentation software combine text, photos, clip art,
graphics, animations, and multimedia into a series of electronic slides to be
shown on a screen or projector.
These are commonly used for class lectures, business communications, product
demonstrations, and so forth.
A typical presentation slide will contain bullet points and graphics with themes
and templates to provide a formal or professional appearance.
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Database software - help users enter, find, organize, update, and report data
stored in a database.
Data is stored as a series of records, which are composed of fields that hold data.
A record holds data for a single entity—a person, place, thing, or event. A field
holds one item of data relevant to a record such as name, age, address, date, title,
price, or vendor name.
Software Licenses:
When you purchase or download software, you do not own it like you own other
purchased products such as books or TV. You probably cannot make copies of the
software and distribute or sell it online like you may do to other goods that you own. In
fact, when using software, you are licensed by the Software Company or owner to use it.
The degree to which you can do things with the software depends on the license
agreement of the software, which is often referred to as EULAs (End-User License
Agreements). The reason software is licensed has to do with copyrights.
From a legal perspective, there are two categories of software: public domain and
proprietary.
Public Domain Software
Public domain software is software that is no longer protected by a copyright or the
rightful owner has placed it in the public domain, making it available without
restriction.
It is typically free without any restrictions.
Proprietary Software
Proprietary software has restrictions on its use delineated by the license agreement,
copyright, or patent.
Some proprietary software is distributed commercially, while some is free.
Based on licensing rights, proprietary software is distributed as commercial software,
freeware, demoware, or open source software.
Depending on the license, proprietary software can be used on a single or multiple user
basis. Some licenses even specify the length of the licensed use, which could be 1 year, 3
years, and so forth.
Chapter 5
Software is the instructions that direct the computer to perform various tasks.
An operating system is the heart of digital devices. It gives devices a personality and
allows them to perform and interact with you and each other. Microsoft Windows and
Apple OS X are operating systems found on most personal computers. Android
and iOS are operating systems found on mobile devices. Both desktop operation systems
and mobile operating systems are designed to accommodate one user at a time. UNIX
and Microsoft Windows Server are operating systems run on server computers. Server
operating systems are designed for distributed networks accessed by multiple users at a
time.
An operating system interacts with application software, device drivers, and computer
hardware to perform tasks assigned by device users. It manages a set of limited system
resources such as processors, memory, storage resources, and input/output devices to
ensure that all of the user requests are performed in an orderly manner.
File Management
Files in a digital device are used to store documents, photos, videos, music, and so forth.
File management utilities are provided by operating systems to manipulate these files,
their names, file types, creations, deletions, duplications, and locations in your storage
devices. Windows File Explorer is the file management tool provided by MS Windows,
and Finder is the tool provided by Mac OS.
Computer file can reside on your computer locally, or it can be stored in the cloud. Each
file must have a filename. This filename consists of a name part and, for MS Windows
and Mac OS, an extension (e.g., custrel.docx is a file containing customer relations
information). The extension part of the filename tells the operating system, application
software, and the type of file. The file name and extension are separated by a period. The
naming of a file must adhere to specific rules of the operating system where it is located.
These rules specify the length limit and the symbols and words that can or cannot be
used in the filenames.
Every storage device has a directory containing a list of files. The top-level main
directory is usually called the root directory. Beneath it are sub-directories and in file
management tools; these sub-directories are depicted as folders. Each folder can hold
related items such as photos taken for some event, or data for the same application
program. Folders can be created within other folders, making them nested folders. A
computer file’s location within the folders is defined by a file path, which consists of a
drive letter and a colon (for personal computers), folder name(s), and the file name and
extension. Each item is separated by back-slashes except the file name and extension,
which are separated by a period.
Each operating system has software for file management called file management
utilities. Application software can open, modify, and save data files as well.
Chapter 7
Networks are the communication links between digital devices. There are different types
of networks including LAN (local area network), WAN (wide area network), and PAN
(personal area network), which transmit data over different wired or wireless channels
through various network equipment such as routers, switches, and access points.
Networks link things together, and in this course we will be focusing on communications
networks. Networks are critical to both business and personal activities where data and
information is shared. When networks are looked at by size, there are three categories.
The most recent is PAN (Personal Area Network). This is a small range, wireless
network. The most common use is to synchronize an individual’s devices. Good
examples are Bluetooth-enabled devices and NFC-enabled connections.
The second category is LAN (Local Area Network). A typical location for a LAN is in a
building where computers will communicate with each other. A building may also
contain multiple LANs. In a LAN, computers are connected via wire or wireless. A good
example of a wireless LAN is the Wi-Fi Network at home.
LANs or individuals are connected to distant locations via the third
category, WANs (Wide Area Networks). The most well-known WAN is the Internet.
The medium connecting computer and networks is called a communication channel.
There are two types: wired and wireless.
Wired channels come in different mediums: copper, coaxial, and fiber-optic.
Copper lines are called "twisted pair" and have been used as the primary mediums for
well over a hundred years. Specialized versions of copper are Ethernet and Network
cables. DSL (Digital Subscriber Lines) connections use copper as well.
Coaxial cable is primarily used for cable television, but can carry digital transmissions as
well.
Fiber-optic cable is typically used for high-capacity trunk lines. There is a saying in the
network community: "copper to the desktop and fiber in the backbone."
LANs would use copper and the trunk line (backbone) would use fiber. The biggest
drawback to wired channels is limited mobility, but they are a much more secure
medium than a wireless channel.
Chapter 9
Protecting the information assets of an individual, an organization, or the government
from security threats has become extremely important. Digital security is important to
individuals, large corporations, and every entity in-between. Digital security involves
protection against unauthorized activity, whether it is done by hackers directly, or
indirectly using malware or viruses.
One of the most effective ways to implement digital security is through encryption.
Encryption is a means of masking data in a message or data file. This method has been
around for centuries. In this process, the sender of a message or the creator of a data file
encrypts the data, making it unreadable to unauthorized readers who do not have the
correct cryptographic key.
Another approach to securing data and access is through authentication. Most
commonly, authentication involves the use of passwords and PINs (Personal
Identification Numbers), though biometric solutions, such as fingerprints and retina
scans, are also used.
Most people are familiar with passwords, as they are required for many activities. To
build a strong password, use at least eight characters, along with a letter, number, or
special character in uppercase. Such passwords are very difficult to hack. Web sites
often have strength meters, which is software that tells you the strength of your newly
created password.
Many activities or Web sites that require passwords use a software called Password
Manager, which keeps track of user IDs and passwords. It can generate a password for
you when you forget yours. The password manager asks for proof that you are you, and
then sends you a new password it has created, which you can use for access.
Generated by Web servers, the cookies reside on the requesting computer and contain
any information collected by the host site about you or your activity. Persistent cookies
are kept after the session is over, while session cookies only exist while the Web
connection is active. Cookies can be set by the domain that hosts the Webpage (firstparty cookies), or by a site other than the one you connected to (third-party cookies).
Malware is the shortened name for Malicious Software, referring to any computer
program designed to surreptitiously enter a digital device. Viruses, worms, and Trojans
are the most common forms of malware. Some malware can be extremely dangerous.
They can delete your data or steal your password or other personal information. Other
malware allows hackers to access your computer and send messages to others with
malware included.
In the context of cyber security, social engineering (SE) is a deceptive practice that
exploits human psychology by inducing victims to interact with a digital device in a way
that is not in their best interest. SE attackers usually try to gain financially or create a
service disruption. Their most well-known trick is to offer a large sum of money to the
victim, but demand an advance fee to start the process of obtaining that money.
Spam consists of unsolicited messages, which can account for approximately 70% of all
e-mails. Spam messages are sent through mass e-mails. Everyone gets spam of some
kind or the other. There are filtering techniques to block spam messages, but spammers
can and have developed techniques to bypass these barriers.
Phishing is a scam message that appears to come from a legitimate source. Through
phishing, a hacker tries to obtain private information.
You can check the e-mail address from which a message has originated to determine
whether it is part of a phishing scam. You can also check with the source directly to
determine whether the message is legitimate.
Pharming is a way to redirect the user to fraudulent Web sites that distribute malware,
collect personal data, and perpetrate other scams. Google and others check URLs and
flag sites that should be avoided by users. This is to enable what is known as safe
browsing. Avoid rogue malware such as fake virus alerts—not generated by your
antivirus software—which try to put malware into your digital device.
A PUP (potentially unwanted program) is a variation of pharming. It is also known as
PUA (potentially unwanted application). This malware tries to get the user to download
harmful programs, especially during software installation. To prevent this, you must
read all the information appearing on the screens during installation of software, and
make sure you know what is being downloaded.
Protection against security threats
Pharming is a way to redirect the user to fraudulent Web sites that distribute malware,
collect personal data, and perpetrate other scams. Google and others check URLs and
flag sites that should be avoided by users. This is to enable what is known as safe
browsing. Avoid rogue malware such as fake virus alerts—not generated by your
antivirus software—which try to put malware into your digital device.
Firewalls are another type of security software that are used to block unauthorized
access to digital devices. Firewalls consist of a set of rules and directions where certain
data is blocked and other data is allowed to pass through to the digital device.
A major problem in the software industry is pirated software. This is software that is
illegally copied, distributed, or modified. Using pirated software is a violation of the law,
and it can lead to a loss of revenue for the software companies creating the software.
Furthermore, illegal software is a major source of viruses and malware.