* Your assessment is very important for improving the workof artificial intelligence, which forms the content of this project
Download Hal 9000 and AI - Computer Science and Technology
Survey
Document related concepts
Technological singularity wikipedia , lookup
Artificial intelligence in video games wikipedia , lookup
Human–computer interaction wikipedia , lookup
Computer Go wikipedia , lookup
Human-Computer Interaction Institute wikipedia , lookup
Visual Turing Test wikipedia , lookup
2001: A Space Odyssey (film) wikipedia , lookup
Turing test wikipedia , lookup
Intelligence explosion wikipedia , lookup
Ethics of artificial intelligence wikipedia , lookup
Existential risk from artificial general intelligence wikipedia , lookup
Embodied cognitive science wikipedia , lookup
History of artificial intelligence wikipedia , lookup
Transcript
Chapter 12 Hal 9000 and AI Hal 9000, an intelligent computer system, plays an important part in the novel “2001: A Space Odyssey” written by Arthor Clark, published for the first time in 1968. This novel was later made into a film, directed by Stanley Kubrick, also in 1968. The following figure shows the eyes of Hal 9000. 1 What is the story? Below is a much simplified plot summary of this film, emphasizing the role played by Hal 9000: “When the world is ruled by apes, one particular group discovers a mysterious rectangular monolith near their home. Astronaut David Bowman, along with four companions, sets off for Jupiter on a spaceship controlled by HAL 9000, a revolutionary computer system that is every bit mankind’s equal, and perhaps his superior. When HAL endangers the crew’s lives for the sake of the mission, Bowman will have to first overcome the computer, then travel to the birthplace of the monolith.” 2 What does Hal 9000 do? The following is a scenario as depicted in the novel, where Hal 9000 tries to take control of the spaceship: “Hal, switch to manual hibernation control.” Question: How does Hal 9000 understand Dave’s command? What kind of ability should Hal possess to distinguish different people’s voice? “I can tell from your voice harmonics, Dave, that you’re badly upset. Why don’t you take a stress pill and get some rest?” Question: How can Hall 9000 tell Dave is upset from the harmonics of his voice? Moreover, now can Hal make the prescription for Dave? 3 “Hal, I am in command of this ship. I order you to release the manual hibernation control.” Question: How does Hal tell the difference between “order” and “request”? “I’m sorry, Dave, but in accordance with special subroutine C1435-dash-4, quote, When the crew are dead or incapacitated, the onboard computer must assume control, unquote. I must, therefore, overrule your authority, since you are not in any condition to exercise it intelligently.” Question: What is “C1435-dash-4”? How does Hal remember its content? How does Hal find such a special routine that is immediately applicable? Is the reasoning that Hal just made sound? Is it rule based? 4 “Hal,” said Bowman, now speaking with an icy calm. “I am not incapacitated. Unless you obey my instructions, I shall be forced to disconnect you.” Question: Can Hal tell the “icy” tone of Bowman? “I know you have had that on your mind for some time now, Dave, but that would be a terrible mistake. I am so much more capable than you are of supervising the ship, and I have such enthusiasm for the mission and confidence in its success.” Question: How can Hal know that Bowman has this tough in his mind for a while? How does Hal rich the conclusion that Bowman might make a terrible mistake? Will you do the same? 5 “Listen to me very carefully, Hal. Unless you release the hibernation control immediately and follow every order I give from now on, I’ll go to Central and carry out a complete disconnection.” Hal’s surrender was as total as it was unexpected. “O.K., Dave,” he said. “You’re certainly the boss. I was only trying to do what I thought best. Naturally, I will follow all your orders. You now have full manual hibernation control.” Question: What is the Achilles heel of Hal 9000? Is this really fatal to Hal 9000? What happens if he carries battery? How do we control such a powerful companion if the need arises? 6 Hal 9000’s ability It is obvious that Hal 9000 is able to “listen”, “think”, and “talk” to people in real time, an “intelligent agent”, just like us. On the other hand, Hal is man made. Thus, we call such an entity a one with artificial intelligence. All these capabilities were mostly pure science fiction. Indeed, back in 1966, two years prior to the publication of this novel, researchers Bhimani, B., Merrill, R., Mitchell, R., and Stark, M., suggested that a person sitting at a desk, by means of a small digitizer and a telephone, could communicate with a database on a mainframe. 7 What is AI? Roughtly speaking, Artificial Intelligence is intended to understand, and build, intelligent entities. AI has produced many interesting and important results. But, it used to be difficult. For example, in the 1960’s, on then a very powerful IBM 360 mainframe, an analysis of a sample required 85 seconds for each second of the voice sample being translated, too slow to help Hal to communicate with his human colleagues in real time. 8 We have achieved quite a bit.... We have made quite a progress along this line: speech recognition and synthesis, e.g., the Siri system equipped with IPhone 4S; logic reasoning and/or planning, e.g., IBM Deep Blue; machine learning, e.g., IBM Watson system; intelligent agents, e.g., automatic vehicle. For example, in the Third DARPA Grand Challenge took place on November 3, 2007, an autonomous vehicle built by a CMU Racing Team completed the 55 mile course in an Urban setting, Victorville, California, in about four hours and won a USD 2M prize. Let’s have a look.... 9 Why are we interested in AI? With AI, we want to study how it is possible for a brain to perceive, understand, predict, and then manipulate the world, which is much larger and complicated than itself. A much more difficult question is that, if we understand such a process, how could we build something with these features? With its fast speed and big memory, Computers provide an ideal platform for us to test out our assumptions and realize our dreams. 10 Both the newest and the oldest AI is one of the newest discipline. It was formally initiated in the mid 1950’s. Although it has accomplished quite a bit, there is still a long way to go. On the other hand, the study of intelligence is also one of the oldest. For 2,000 years, philosophers have tried to understand how seeing, learning, remembering, and reasoning, could, as well as should, be done. The emergence of computers in the early 1950’s made speculations into a real experimental and theoretical science. 11 Computer and AI With its huge memory and stunning speed, besides providing a vehicle for creating artificial intelligence entities, the computer also provides a tool for testing theories of intelligence, many of which could not stand the test, just like many of the physics theories. AI currently consists of many sub-fields. From such general areas as logic reasoning, to some very specific ones, such as playing chess. Many scientists of other areas often move into AI, where they find the theories and tools that systemize what they have been doing for a long time; while AI workers may choose to apply their methods to any area of human intelligence. 12 Various perspectives There are various definitions of artificial intelligence. Some of them emphasize more on the thought process and reasoning; while others emphasize on the behavior. Another angle is that if it tries to characterize human performance; or some ideal performance, i.e., if it always does the right thing, or, rationally. Thus, there could be four approaches, which have all been followed. A human-centered approach must be an experimental one, involving assumptions, and experimental confirmations; while a rationalist approach involves a combination of mathematics and engineering. 13 Turing and his Test Turing (1912-1954) proposed a test to provide an operational definition of intelligence, when he defined intelligent behavior as the ability to achieve human-level performance in all cognitive tasks, sufficient to fool an interrogator. More specifically, a human interrogator asks questions to, and get answers from, two sources, one is controlled by a computer, the other by a human being, without knowing which is which. If the interrogator cannot distinguish the sources based on the answers, then we may say the compute exhibits sufficiently human intelligence to pass the Turing test. 14 What does it take to pass? The Loebner Prize, that started in 1990, is an annual competition that awards prizes to the Chatterbot considered by the judges to be the most human-like among the competitors. The format of the competition is that of a standard Turing test. The Loebner Prize Competition in Artificial Intelligence for this year should be held on October 19 at University of Exeter, Exeter, UK. with the top prize of $4,000 and a bronze medal. To pass such a test, a computer would have to possess such abilities as natural language processing, knowledge representation, automated reasoning, and machine learning. Who won the Loebner Test this year? 15 Think humanly: Cognitive modeling Following this approach, we have to set up a theory on human being’s thinking first by studying our own thinking process, or via psychological experiments. Then, we have to express the theory as a computer program. If the program’s I/O and timing behavior match with the real thing, we will have some evidence that some of the program’s mechanisms may also be operating in humans. The filed of cognitive science brings together computer models of AI and experimental techniques of Psychology to construct precise and testable models of the workings of human mind. In particular, the GPS (General Problem Solver) program (1957, Simon and Newell) is to compare its reasoning steps with that of human subjects solving the same problems. 16 Think rationally: The laws of thought Aristotle (384-322 BC) was one of the first to attempt to formalize the thinking process. His famous syllogisms provides pattern for argument structures that always gave correct conclusions given correct premises. E.g., “Socrates is a man; all men are mortal; therefore Socrates is mortal.” By 1965, programs came to life which, taking a problem represented in logic notation, is guaranteed to find a solution, if there is one, given enough space and time. The trick is that, if no solution exists, we might never know it. Logic programming is the main tool in this field. 17 Theory and practice It is not easy to covert informal knowledge into formal notation (How does a baby recognize her mother’s face in just a few days?) Also, there is a big gap between being able to do it in principle and solve it in practice. In fact, two essential issues in AI is knowledge representation and search. The former deals with representing what we know so that computers also “know”, and the second is how to let a computer find the useful information to solve a problem at hand. 18 Act rationally: The rational agent It is to act to achieve one’s goals, given one’s beliefs. An agent is just something that perceives and acts. In this approach, AI is regarded as the study and construction of rational agents. Although making correct inferences is sometimes part of being a rational agent, it is not always the case, since there might not be any provably correct things to do; or it is simply an act of gut feeling, e.g., pulling one’s hand off a hot stove. All the cognitive skills listed under Turing Test are needed to allow rational actions. 19 Maybe the real thing? This approach has two advantages. It is more general than the “laws of thought” approach since correct inference is only a useful mechanism, but not necessary. It is also more amenable to scientific development than human centered approaches, because the concept of rationality is clearly defined and completely general. The Grand Challenge might be regarded as a good test of this theory. 20 Activities Choose a topic and write a one-page, single space, essay. • What does the character of Hal 9000 represent? Discuss the possible issues and their implications when human beings are able to come up with such an intelligent product(s). • Explore the status quo of artificial intelligence at present. What are among the most successful accomplishment of modern AI technology? • What are some of the other influential AI related characters as described in science fiction novels? 21 • Play with Eliza, do some research about its history and technology behind it. Why can Alice talk with you? • What is the main difference between a robot and human being? • If you have watched Spielberg’s “Artificial Intelligence:AI”, why does David want to be a real boy? What did he go through? Compare this David figure with Hal 9000. • Have you used, or seen a demo, of iRobot, the carpet cleaner? What kind of intelligence do you think it shows? What kind of issues will be involved in making a product that will automatically cut your lawn? 22 • What is involved in an automatic vehicle? What issues have to addressed before putting it on road? Any commercial attempts have been made? What is the status? • What do you think about the Turing Test? Do you think a program really demonstrates intelligent behavior if it passes the Turing test? Why or why not? • Do some investigation of AI application in your discipline? • What do you think will happen to AI in the future? 23