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LECTURE NOTES 2.1: ANCIENT EGYPT
Key Questions:
1. Enumerate the benefits of the Nile to the Egyptian civilization.
2. Describe the belief systems that emerged in Ancient Egypt.
3. Make distinction between the three major periods in the Egyptian political history (Old Kingdom, Middle
Kingdom, and New Kingdom).
4. Discuss the importance of the achievements of Ancient Egypt and its impact to the ancient and contemporary
humanity.
A. Egypt, the “Gift of the Nile”
i. Greek historian Herodotus first coined the phrase (Egypt, gift of the river) after seeing the Nile’s integral part in
making Ancient Egypt what it was.
ii. Good environmental/geographical features are essential for a civilization to thrive. For Egypt, this good
environment was provided by the river Nile.
iii. In its constant and dependable rhythm, the Nile provided water for irrigation and other basic human necessities.
The annual flooding (called inundation) renewed the fertility of the soil year after year. The Nile was dependable
and life-enhancing. Its flooding was more stable and somewhat “gentle” compared to the unpredictable and
destructive flooding of Tigris and Euphrates of Mesopotamia. Thus, the Egyptians developed a relatively
optimistic and positive outlook. Egypt is characterized by “stability and serenity” compared to the turmoil and
tension which the Mesopotamians reflect. The Egyptians, in their reliefs, paintings, and sculptures, were
portrayed as “smiling and basked in the sun”, seeing life on earth as blissful and happy. Because of these
features of the Nile, the Egyptians felt that nature was somewhat predictable and benign, allowing them to live
without much worries.
iv. The Nile is closely linked to the Egyptian concept of afterlife—the passage from this life to the next, is linked
with the crossing of the Nile from the Eastern to the Western shore. The west bank of the Nile is the traditional
resting place, where pharaohs and commoners alike are buried.
v. The Nile was a long, continuous stream of water which was the common source of water for all Egyptians. This
feature contributed to the political unification of Egypt. The Nile’s cataract also served as protection from
foreign intrusions and created a relative isolation which contributed to the uniqueness of Egypt’s culture.
B. Belief systems
i. The influences of religion resonate in almost every aspect of the Egyptian life. It legitimized and reinforced the
power of their rulers. Their belief in the gods and the afterlife was the source of motivation for the building of
grand architectural structures. Religion was the basis for the rituals and practices that dominated people’s every
day lives.
ii. Ancient Egyptian faith underwent different stages: from a simple form of polytheism, to the rise of ritualism and
magic, to the development of the earliest form of monotheism, then back to polytheism.
iii. Egyptian’s early polytheism could’ve evolved from the merging of the belief in different deities existing as local
gods. When these small villages/communities unified into a single kingdom, it led not only into the merging of
power but also the fusion of the local religious beliefs. The village-level gods were merged into a “group of
deities”, and their connection and inter-relations were reinforced through myths.
iv. All the local deities were merged All of the local deities were merged into the sun god Re (a.k.a. Ra, Amon-Re or
Amon-Ra) who became the chief god. Meanwhile the gods that represented fertility or vegetative powers were
fused into a god called Osiris. Other deities were recognized but regarded as subordinate to the former two.
These gods were personifications of nature which means that they are imagined as human-like manifestation of
nature’s powers. When gods take human form or are envisioned with a human body, with human-like attitude
or characteristics, they are called “anthropomorphic gods”. Examples of other “lesser gods” are: Horus, the
falcon god, son of Osiris; Isis, wife of Osiris; Anubis, god of embalming.
v. Then, a trend towards the predominance of ritualism and “magical practices” swept throughout Egypt in the
latter period of the Middle Kingdom. The people, due perhaps to the bitter wars that they fought against a
foreign invader, started preferring magical practices that promised personal rewards. This was characterized by
the use of potions, spells, magical charms, and formulas promised to deliver immortality. The people started
losing the spirit of the early polytheistic faith. Thus a short religious upheaval arose during the reign of
Amenhotep IV which began in 1375 BCE. The pharaoh sought not to revive the old tradition but instead, to
forward a radical new one. He initiated the worship of a new god called “Aton” (an ancient name for the sun)
and as pharaoh, changed his name for Amenhotep which means “Aton is satisfied”. His wife Nefertiti became
“Nefer-Nefru-Aton” meaning “beautiful is the beauty of Aton”. Akhenaton instituted the first monotheism, a
religion centered on one, almighty, universal god. Aton was the only God (aside from Akhenaton himself who
was Aton’s heir) and like none of the gods before him, Aton did not assume human or animal shape. Aton was
conceived as the life-giving, warm rays of the sun. Aton was also believed to be the creator of the universe and
thus, god of all and everyone. This one god was also seen as the source and author of moral order and is the
rewarder of ethical practices on earth. Historically ground-breaking as it was, this religious upheaval still failed.
This monotheism gained little popularity among the masses because many remained devoted to the old gods.
Akhenaton’s successor King Tut changed his name from Tutankhaton to Tutankhamen and established a new
capital at Thebes. With him and his new capital, Egypt saw a restoration of the old polytheism.
C. Political History
Ancient Egypt’s political history can be divided into six major eras: archaic period (3100-2770 BCE), Old
Kingdom (2770-2200 BCE), followed by the first intermediate period, then the Middle Kingdom (2050-1786 BCE),
the second intermediate period, and the New Kingdom (1560-1087 BCE). The years prior to the archaic period
was the time when Egypt developed features that shaped its civilization—the hieroglyphs, system of
government, communities with religions, etc. The unification of the Upper and Lower Egypt (see Ancient Egypt
map at the last page) marked the beginning of the Archaic period.
The Old Kingdom began with King Zoser’s (or Joser) rule. King Zoser’s rule initiated a period of greater state
power and royal absolutism that became the key political feature of the Old Kingdom. The extent of the
pharaoh’s power can be seen in the fact that pyramids were built during the Old Kingdom. The pharaoh was
considered the child of the sun god and no separation of religious and political life existed. The pharaoh was
himself, the chief priest.
Although ruled by god-kings who were absolute monarchs, the Old Kingdom was founded on the policy of
peace. It had no standing army, nor a national militia. There were local militias but when they’re called to active
service it was usually for the purpose of building. This peace was enjoyed because of the protected position of
the country (deserts as natural barriers) and the stability of their food source (due to fertile soil). The Old
Kingdom ended with the rule of the Sixth dynasty due to several causes. First, climatic disaster severed their
crops and thus, prosperity was affected. Also due to pyramid-building, revenues were exhausted leading to
instability and people anxiety. The central authority was challenged leading to chaotic power struggle and soon,
anarchy ensued.
The failures of the Old Kingdom taught the Middle Kingdom to be more responsible to its people. A middle
class composed of officials, merchants, artisans and farmers emerged. The nobility ruled with an alliance to this
middle class, keeping the leadership in check. Public works that benefited the populace were built. Temples that
were used by more people replaced the building of pyramids which benefited only the pharaohs. The Twelfth
dynasty of the Middle Kingdom is considered as Ancient Egypt’s golden age because of the extent of its
prosperity and the progressive developments in religious and political practices.
Then, Egypt was invaded by Hyksos, roughly translated as “Rulers of Foreign Lands”, a mixed horde
originating in West Asia. This invasion ended the rule of the Middle Kingdom and begun another intermediate
period characterized by chaos. It was not until Egypt defeated the Hyksos in 1560 BCE that order was restored.
The New Kingdom was established by Ahmose, the hero of the war against the Hyksos. Ahmose, after
reestablishing Egypt’s independence, did not only restored sovereign rule but went about building an “empire”.
He and the succeeding pharaohs adopted a policy of aggression and imperialism, seeking to advance and expand
their territory. It is said that “the military ardor generated by the successful war against the Hyksos whetted an
appetite for further victories”. Although the rulers of the New Kingdom were able to subjugate Palestine, Syria,
and vast areas in the Tigris and Euphrates region, they were not successful in wielding the conquered peoples
into loyal subjects. Revolts among these invaded tribes along with the deterioration of the succeeding rulers led
to the decline of the New Kingdom. A dynasty of Lybian rulers seized power. This was followed by a succession
of foreign rule: the Nubians, Assyrians, Persians, followed by the Greeks, and Romans.
D. Achievements of Ancient Egypt
a. Practical Science
i. The Egyptians developed practices in surgery and medicine. E.g., setting fractures, antibiotics for
wounds, ointments, inhalants, herbal preparations that were eventually adapted by the Greeks.
ii. In astronomy, the Egyptians contributed by developing a calendar based on a star instead of the
cycles of the moon
iii. Methods of measurement. The Egyptians were the first to assign 360 degrees to a circle. They
devised means for computing the areas of triangles and volumes of pyramids, cylinders, etc.
b. Art and architecture
i. Literature flourished through the development of a system of writing and paper from papyrus reed.
ii. “Paper” from papyrus reed enabled the Egyptians to produce abundant documents. The Egyptians
discovered that when flattened and dried, papyrus could be used to write hieroglyphs on. They can
be rolled up into scrolls for easy transportation and keeping. The relative convenience of papyrus
sheets compared with clay tablets made it easier for more people to share with the joys and
benefits of writing.
iii. The Egyptians developed system of writing with three types of hieroglyphic characters: pictographic,
syllabic, and alphabetic. It is said that perhaps, the Egyptian’s awareness of the cuneiform of
Mesopotamia served as precedent for the invention of their own system of writing. But cuneiform
was pictographic and syllabic. Therefore, the Egyptian alphabetic characters (symbols based on
sounds) are a separate unique innovation.
c. Pyramids - The ancient Egyptians built pyramids as tombs for the pharaohs and their queens. There are
about eighty pyramids known today from ancient Egypt. The first “prototype” of a pyramid was the steppyramid build by an architect named Imhotep, for King Zoser. The three largest and best-preserved of these
pyramids were built at Giza at the beginning of the Old Kingdom. The most well-known of these pyramids
was the pyramid of Pharaoh Khufu (known by the Greeks as Cheops). It is known as the 'Great Pyramid',
with the height of 482 feet.
The ancient Egyptian word for these pyramids was 'Mer'. The use of the word 'pyramid' to refer to
these ancient Egyptian structures started with the Greeks, from the word 'pyramis' which means 'wheat
cake'. The word 'pyramis' was used to describe the ancient Egyptian buildings because they reminded
the Greeks of pointy-topped wheat cakes.
d. Temples – massive in size, with gigantic, richly-carved columns. Some of the columns used in these temples
became the models for the ones used by the Greeks and Romans. The largest temple column had a height of
70 ft and diameter of more than 20 ft. The temple at Karnak, with length of about 1300 ft covered the
largest area of any religious edifice ever built. Its central hall could contain almost any of the cathedrals in
Europe.
e. Sculpture and Paintings- typically used to decorate or furnish architectural structures. Most of the statues of
pharaohs are colossal to symbolize the might and extent of state power. Most statues, with the exception
of those produced during Akhenaton’s rule, show anatomical distortions and were non-naturalistic. The
most famous example of this non-naturalistic sculpture was the Great Sphinx at Giza, representing the head
of a pharaoh in the body of a lion.
f. Religious/philosophical
i. Mummification and life after death
The earliest ancient Egyptians buried their dead in small pits in the desert. The heat and dryness of the sand
dehydrated the bodies quickly, creating lifelike and natural 'mummies'. Later, the ancient Egyptians began
burying their dead in coffins to protect them from wild animals in the desert. However, they realised that
bodies placed in coffins decayed when they were not exposed to the hot, dry sand of the desert. Over many
centuries, the ancient Egyptians developed a method of preserving bodies so they would remain lifelike. The
process included embalming the bodies and wrapping them in strips of linen. Today we call this process
mummification.
Major references:
World Civilizations, Vol. 1 by Ralph, Lerner, Meacham, Wood, Hull and Burns. WW Norton and Company, 1993
The British Museum, Online Information about Egypt
National Geographic Society at www.nationalgeographic.com
Ancient Egypt at www.bbc.co.uk/history
1. This name came from the Greek for “priestly carvings”. This is the system of writing developed in Egypt before
3100 BCE. Later, it developed into a simpler form called “demotic” for use of the commoners.
2. From the Greek version of the term “per-aa” which means “Great House” or palace. It was used originally to
refer to the court or royal residence but was later on used to refer to the King of Egypt.
3. It means “life” (or eternal life). This is the hieroglyph used as a sacred emblem, frequently employed as
decorative motif.
4. Flat, black stone found in 1799. It enabled modern historians to decode the ancient Egyptian texts. It has the
same message written on three scripts (ancient priestly carvings, demotic, and Greek).
5. Built as tombs for Egyptian kings and queens. It’s ancient name is “Mer”.
6. Tomb with low, rectangular super structure with an underground burial.
7. Gigantic structures or monuments. Example: Great Sphinx of King Khafre.
8. Dung beetle; symbol of rebirth and renewal. Sometimes used to represent Khepri, god of the rising sun.
9. A monolithic stone with a quadrangular base, placed upright and ending with a pointed top. In Egypt, made of a
single piece of granite. Used to represent Ra.
10. A triangular reed which symbolized ancient Lower Egypt. Its stems are used to produce rolls of paper-like
material used mainly for recording documents.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
He discovered King Tutankhamen.
He is the Great builder; linked with the Jewish exodus.
He was the pharaoh for which the Great Pyramid was built
He was the pharaoh who reformed Egyptian belief system into
monotheism which revered the god Aton.
Known as one of the first great women leaders. She ruled as
pharaoh after the death of Thutmose II, her husband.
The falcon god, son of Osiris
The sun god, also known as the chief among the Egyptian gods
He is the god of fertility, life and death
She is the wife of Osiris, who brings him back to life
God of embalming
A.
B.
C.
D.
E.
F.
G.
H.
I.
J.
K.
L.
Aton
Akhenaton
Amon-Ra
Anubis
Hatshepsut
Horus
Howard Carter
Isis
Khufu
Khafre
Osiris
Ramesses II