Download English Language Introduction

Unit One
Alphabet
There are twenty six letters of the alphabet in English language. Here is the
alphabet, showing the difference between capital letters and small letters:
Small letters:
abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz
Capital letters:
ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ
Notes:
(1) The first word of every sentence begins with a capital letter.
For example: The moon was full that night.
(2) The first letter of every proper noun, the particular name of a person, title,
begins with a capital letter.
The alphabet are divided into two groups of letters: vowels and consonants.
 The vowels are: a, e, i, o, u and sometimes y. They can be sounded by
themselves.
 The consonants are all the other letters. They need vowels to help them to
sound.
Types of sentence
The sentence is a group of words that makes complete sense on its own. All
sentences begin with a capital letter and end with a full stop. It may be in the
form of a question mark or exclamation mark, but the full stop is still there (?!).
The sentence consists of:
subject + verb + object or (preposition + noun)
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There are three types of sentence:
1. The simple sentence
A simple sentence contains of a single clause. A clause is a part of a sentence
that contains a finite verb.
For example: The earth shook.
Note: The verbal nouns, present participles, past participles and infinitives are
not finite verbs.
2. The compound sentence
A compound sentence consists of two main clauses (two simple sentences)
joined together by a conjunction like and, but, or. Each part of a compound
sentence has a complete meaning by itself.
a. and
For example: He bought a newspaper and started reading it.
b. but
For example: He worked hard but he did not pass the exam.
c. or
For example: Study hard or you will fail.
3. The complex sentences
A complex sentence contains one main clause and one or more subordinate
clause. A subordinate clause does not make sense on its own but gives
additional information about the main clause.
It makes no difference whether the main clause or the subordinate clause
comes first, the clauses still stay the same.
For example: I shall go home, when the sun sets.
Main clause
Subordinate clause
When the sun sets, I shall go home.
Subordinate clause
Main clause
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Pronouns
It is often used in order to avoid repeating a noun that has already been
mentioned (i.e. a pronoun is used instead of a noun).
For example: The woman picked up the letter and opened it.
1. Personal pronouns
The personal pronouns refer to people apart from it which refers to a thing,
and they which can refer to people or things.
a. Subject pronouns
The subject pronouns are used as the subject of a sentence. The subject
pronouns are:
I, you, he, she, it, we, they
The subject pronouns are used before the verb.
For example: He is a clever student.
b. Object pronouns
The object pronouns are used as the object of a verb or preposition. The
object pronouns are:
me, you, him, her, it, us, them
The object pronouns are used after the verb or preposition.
For example: Take these books and put them on the desk.
He gave it to them.
2. Possessive adjectives
Possessive adjectives describe to whom or to what something belongs. The
possessive adjectives are:
my, your, his, her, its, our, their
For example: This is my book.
What’s your name?
Note: What’s = What is
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3. Possessive pronouns
The possessive pronouns show who something belongs to or is connected
with. The possessive pronouns are:
mine, yours, his, hers, its, ours, theirs
For example: This is your book. Where is mine?
Notes:
(1) A possessive adjective is similar to a possessive pronoun, it is used as an
adjective and modifies a noun or a noun phrase.
(2) The possessive adjectives are followed by a noun but the possessive
pronouns are not.
(3) The possessive adjective is used directly in front of a noun, and there is no
article.
(4) After the preposition “of” a possessive pronoun always comes and not a
possessive adjective.
Example: I go to the library with a friend of mine.
The verb “be”
The tense of the verb “be” is:
Present tense
Past tense
Future tense
I am
I was
I shall be
you are (for singular)
you were
you will be
he is
he was
he will be
she is
she was
she will be
it is
it was
it will be
we are
we were
we shall be
you are (for plural)
you were
you will be
they are
they were
they will be
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1. The verb “be” in the present tense is as follows:
I am, you are and is used with singular subject and are with the plural
subject.
For example: The book is on the table.
The keys are in the bag.
2. The verb “be” in the past tense is as follows:
I was, you were and was used with the singular subject and were with the
plural subjects.
3. The verb “be” in the future tense is as follows:
Shall be used with I and we, while will be used with the other pronouns.
Note:
Use will instead of shall for ascertainment: I will, we will.
The agreement of subject and verb:
1. Two singular nouns connected by “and”; the verb is plural.
For example: A student and his friend are studying.
2. A singular noun followed by “with” or “as well as”; the verb is singular.
For example: A man as well as a woman is coming.
A man with two boys is coming.
3. The noun following “each, every, either, neither” is singular, so the verb is
singular.
For example: Each girl is wearing a hat.
4. The verb after “a number” is plural, but it is singular after “the number”.
For example: A number of students are studying.
The number of students is not known.
5. The name of a book is singular.
For example: “Grammar and Idiom” is a useful book.
6. Either … or; neither… nor. The verb agrees with the nearest subject.
For example: Either you or I am wrong.
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7. The agreement of verb with the singular subject:
For example: Reading books is useful.
Contractions
A contraction is when two words are joined and one or more letters are removed
from the second word and replaced with an apostrophe.
I’m = I am
You’re = You are
He’s = He is
She’s = She is
It’s = It is
Spelling
The sound may occurred at the beginning in the middle or at the end of the
word. The consonant sounds are;
1. The letter “f” is pronounced /v/ as in the word of and it is pronounced /f/ as in
of course.
2. The syllable “gh” is pronounced /f/ as in the following words:
rough, tough, draught
3. The letter “h” is not pronounced as in the following words:
hour, honour, honest
4. The syllable “ph” is pronounced /f/ as in the following words:
paragraph, physics, pharmacy
The syllable “ph” is pronounced /p/ as in the following word:
shepherd
5. The letter “c” is usually pronounced /s/ if it is followed by e, i, y; otherwise it
is pronounced /k/ as in the following words:
center, science, pharmacy
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The letter “c” is pronounced /ʃ/ if it is followed by ea, ia, ie, io as in the
following words:
ocean, appreciate, efficient, suspicious
6. The syllable “ch” is pronounced /k/ as in the following words:
school, chemistry, mechanic
The syllable “ch” is pronounced /ʃ/ as in the following words:
machine
Additional grammar
over there: It is used to express the far distance (but not very far), for example:
Where’s the new student? He’s over there near the door.
Engineering terms
Acceleration
Analysis: (Mathematical analysis), (Structural analysis)
Area: (Area-moment method), (Equivalent area), (Net area)
Arm
Axis: (Neutral axis)
Ball bearing
Ballast
Bar: (Deformed bar0, (Plain bar), Twisted bar)
Barrier
Basement
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Unit Two
Articles
Articles are the words a, an, and the. It is a part of speech that comes before a
noun.
1. The definite article:
The definite article is “the”. It is used in front of countable and uncountable
nouns (mass nouns).
For example: I am going to the laboratory.
Notes:
(1) If the word “the” comes before a word beginning with a consonant sound,
it is pronounced /ðə/ as in: the road.
(2) If the word “the” comes before a word beginning with a vowel sound, it is
pronounced /ði/ as in: the upper part. And if the vowel letter is
pronounced as a consonant sound, then the word “the” is pronounced /ðə/
as in: the uniform.
2. The indefinite articles:
The indefinite articles are “a” and “an”. They are used in front of singular
countable nouns (unit nouns).
 “A” is used before a consonant sound.
For example; A window is made of a glass.
 “An” is used before a word beginning with a vowel sound or a silent “h”.
For example: An iron is metal.
He is an honest man.
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Notes:
(1) The indefinite article “a” or “an” is not used in front of uncountable nouns
For example; This is water.
(2) The indefinite article “a” or “an” is not used in front of a noun in the
plural.
For example: Butterflies are insects.
Demonstrative pronouns
A demonstrative pronoun is a word that takes the place of particular objects or
people. The common demonstrative pronouns are:
1. This: The pronoun “this” is used to refer to a singular object which is near the
speaker (or here).
Example: This is a camera.
What’s this? It’s an earring.
2. That: The pronoun “that” is used to refer to a singular object which is far
from the speaker (or there).
Example: That is small.
 In this example, the pronoun “That” takes the place of an object which is far
from the speaker (or there). This particular object may be star in the sky, for
example.
Example: Is that him?
 In this example, the pronoun “that” takes the place of an object which is far
from the speaker (or there). The object which the word “that” takes the place
of may be a man walking across the street from the speaker, for example.
3. These: The pronoun “these” is used to refer to more than one object which is
near the speaker (or here).
Example: These are cameras.
What are these? They’re earrings.
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4. Those: The pronoun “those” is used to refer to more than one object which is
far from the speaker (or there).
 Example: Those are active.
In this example, the pronoun “Those” takes the place of an object which is far
from the speaker (or there). These particular objects may be workers in a site,
for example.
 Example: I want three of those.
In this example, the pronoun “those” takes the place of more than one object
which is far from the speaker (or there). The object which the word “those”
takes the place of may be chocolate candies on a store shelf which is far from
the speaker, for example.
Note:
Contractions:
It’s = It is
They’re = They are
Questions with the verb “be”
There are two basic types of questions: yes/no questions and information
questions.
1. Yes/No questions with “be”:
Yes/no questions are asked using the auxiliary verbs such as verb “be”. This
type of questions always begin with one of these verbs and can be answered
with a simple yes or no.
To ask about the identity or description of a person, place, or thing use be plus
a noun or adjective.
Example: Is this your wallet?
Are these your keys?
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2. Information questions (where questions with “be”)
Where: is used to ask for a place or location. In this case, to make a question,
place the verb be before the subject.
Example: Where is your wallet?
Where are my keys?
Prepositions
The prepositions are words that show the relationship between a noun or a
pronoun and some other words or element in the rest of the sentence. For
example:
He swam across the lake.
In this example, the preposition “across” connects the noun “lake” with the verb
“swam”.
The cupcake with sprinkles is mine.
In this example, the preposition “with” is showing the relationship between the
noun “sprinkles” and the noun “cupcake”.
Therefore, a preposition is a part of speech that shows how the noun or pronoun
that comes after it is related to the verb, noun or pronoun that comes before it.
The sentence diagram below shows how the parts of sentences are related. In the
sentence diagram, the preposition hooks nouns (called objects of the
preposition) to the rest of the sentence.
subject
verb
preposition
preposition
object of the
preposition
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object of the
preposition
List of prepositions:
The prepositions list contains one-word, two-word and three-word prepositions.
Sometimes, words act together to form one preposition.
A
aboard, about, above, across, after, against, ahead of, along, amid, amidst,
among, around, as, as far as, aside from, at, athwart, atop
Notes:
(1) “Among” is used for more than two.
We sat among the trees.
(2) “At” is used with hours.
At one o’clock.
B
barring, because of, before, behind, below, beneath, beside, besides, between,
beyond, but, by, by means of
Note:
“Between” is used for two.
Summer comes between spring and autumn.
C
circa, concerning
D
despite, down, during
Note:
“During” is used for time.
It gets hot during summer.
E
except, except for, excluding
F
far from, following, for, from
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I
in, in accordance with, in addition to, in case of, in front of, in lieu of, in place
of, in spite of, including, inside, instead of, into
Note:
“In” is used with months, seasons and years.
in May, in spring, in 2012 …
L
like
M
minus
N
near, next to
O
of, off, on, on account of, on behalf of, on top of, onto, opposite, out, out of,
outside, over
Note:
“On” is used with the days of the week and dates.
on Sunday, on 6th May …
P
past, plus, prior to
R
regarding, regardless of
S
save, since
T
than, through, till, to, toward, towards
Note:
“Through” is used for place.
The sun is shining through the window.
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U
under, underneath, unlike, until, up, upon
V
versus, via
W
with, with regard to, within, without
Note:
The Prepositions of place are: in, in front of, behind, on, next to.
Pronunciation: Plural -s endings
endingPronunciation
The plural -s endings have three different sounds as follows:
a. The letter “s” when added to a word ending by one of the sounds /f/, /k/,
/p/, /t/ and /ɵ/ is pronounced /s/ as follows:
roof: roofs, rock: rocks, map: maps, rent: rents, depth: depths.
b. The letter “s” and “es” when added to a word ending by: ch, ge, sh, /Ʒ/, s,
ce, x, /z/ is pronounced /iz/ as follows:
branch: branches, bridge: bridges, brush: brushes, garage: garages, case:
cases, sentence: sentences, fix: fixes, exercise: exercises.
c. If the word is not ending by the above mentioned sound, when adding s for
the end of the word, it is pronounced /z/ as in the following word:
road: roads: breath: breathes, valley: valleys.
Note:
breath (n.); ea = /e/
breathe (v.); ea = /i:/
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Engineering terms
Beam: (Cantilever beam), Continuous beam), (Simple beam),
Bearing
Bench mark
Bending
Bending moment
Bitumen
Bleeding of concrete
Bolt
Bond
Bored pile
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Unit Three
Affirmative and negative statements with the verb “be”
 Affirmative statements:
An affirmative statement states that something is true. In affirmative statement,
the verb follows the subject.
For example; I am early.
They are ready.
 Negative statements:
In the simple present of the verb to be, negative statements are formed by
adding the word not after the verb.
For example: I’m not early
They’re not ready.
In the first example, “not” follows the verb am. In the second example, “not”
follows the verb are.
Note:
To change an affirmative sentence (or statement) into the negative, put “not”
after the helping verb.
Yes/No questions with “be”
In the simple present tense, negative forms and question forms are made by
using the auxiliary verb like “be”.
For the simple present of the verb be, questions are formed by reversing the
order of the subject and the verb, so that the verb precedes the subject. For
example:
Is your first language English?
The answer can be in the form:
No, it’s not. It’s Arabic.
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We always use the short answer as in the following form:
Yes, + subject + auxiliary verb
No, + subject + auxiliary verb + not
(1) If the answer is “Yes”, use the long form.
Example: Yes, I am.
(2) If the answer is “No”, either use the long or the contracted form (short form).
Example: No, I am not.
No, I’m not.
Wh-questions with “be”
They are called Wh-questions because they usually use a question word that
begins with the letters Wh, and used to find out more information about a topic.
The structure of a Wh-question is:
question word + auxiliary verb + subject
To answer such questions, put the subject at the beginning of the answer then
pick the helping verb and put it after the said subject.
The wh-questions are:
1. What: is used for a thing.
What is your name?
My name is.........
The question word “What” is replaced by the name of a thing (object).
2. Where: is used for a place.
Where are you from?
I’m from Iraq.
“Where” is replaced by a certain place.
3. How: is used for the condition.
How are you today?
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I’m just fine.
“How” is replaced by some condition.
How old: is used for the age.
How old is he?
He is twenty-one.
“How old” is replaced by some age.
4. Who: is used for a person (subject).
Who is that?
He is my brother.
Who are they?
They are my classmates.
Descriptions
See the phrases below to describe people.
What is he like?
He’s quiet.
He’s cute.
What is she like?
She’s talkative.
She’s serious.
Engineering terms
Borehole
Box culvert
Box girder
Bricks
Bridge
Brittle
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Buckling
Building- Multi story building
Center of gravity
Civil engineering
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