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What is Syntax? LING 201 §Definition: the study of the way in which sentences are constructed from smaller units called constituents; how sentences are related to each other Syntax Janice Fon The Ohio State University 1 Hierarchical Structure 2 Lexical Categories §Definition: classes of words grouped together based on their morphological and syntactic properties, traditionally known as parts of speech morphological frames: position of a word with respect to the bound morphemes that can attach to it syntactic frames: position in which a word occurs relative to other classes of words in the same phrase 4 l l 3 Open vs. Closed Classes Open Class I: Nouns § Open class/open set (content words): a word class whose membership allows the unlimited addition of new items, the chief classes being nouns, verbs, adjectives, and adverbs § Closed class/closed system (function words): a word class whose membership is fixed or limited, such as the class of determiners, pronouns, prepositions, auxiliary verbs, or conjunctions 5 § morphological frames l _____ + pl. marker • dog-s, child-ren, sheep-φ § syntactic frames l DET + _____ (a, the, some, many, several, several) l DET + ADJ + _____ • the class, several stars, φ + John • a fierce dog, some stupid kid 6 1 Nouns: Subcategories Open Class II: Verbs § morphological frames § count nouns: nouns denoting objects that are discrete, countable units (ex) table, computer, wheel l _____ + progressive morpheme l _____ + 3rd person singular morpheme • think-thinks, say-says § syntactic frames singular mass nouns can occur without determiners l AUX + _____ (may, might, will) l (please) + _____ + imperative form l ADV + _____/_____ + ADV • might be, may eat, will talk § abstract nouns: nouns that denote a mental object, an idea, or concept (ex) justice, truth, beauty • Please listen to me!; Shut up!; Leave! singular abstract nouns can occur without determiners l l • talk-talking, type-typing § mass nouns: nouns denoting objects that are not countable or divisible into discrete units (ex) grass, rice, sand, water, paper l _____ + tense morpheme • go-went, sing-sang, kick-kicked, rig-rigged, pit-pitted a/one/two/every/each/_____ singular count nouns need determiners l l • hesitantly speak, run breathlessly 7 Verbs: Subcategories Open Class III: Adjectives § intransitive verbs (Vi): verbs that only take subject noun phrases and no object noun phrases (ex) die, look, walk, exist l 8 § morphological frames He looked but couldn’t find anyone around.. § transitive verbs (Vt): verbs that take a noun phrase direct object (ex) hit, wash, murder l most + _____ or _____ + -est (superlative) § syntactic frames l DET + _____ + N l LINKING V + _____ (be, seem, look, feel) l ADV + _____ • the haunted house, an honest man I think (that) we can go to the mall together. § linking verbs (Vl): verbs that indicate a relationship of identity between the subject and the predicate of the verb, or of a quality possessed by the subject and found in the predicate (ex) be, look, seem, become l l • most wonderful, ugli-est I gave him 50 dollars. § verbs with sentential complements (Vdt): verbs that take a following whole sentence; some of them also require a complementizer (COMP) (ex) ask, say, think l more + _____ or _____ + -er (comparative) • more beautiful, pretti-er You should wash those dishes before you go to bed. § ditransitive verbs (Vdt): verbs that take both a direct object and an indirect object (ex) give, sell, tell l l • seems funny, is serious He became a doctor. • very quiet, helplessly absent-minded 9 Adjectives: Subcategories Open Class IV: Adverbs § stative adjectives: adjectives denoting more or less permanent qualities (ex) red, small, wooden, short § morphological frames l l l [ADJ + -ly]ADV • happi-ly, sad-ly, glad-ly; • exceptions: friend-ly, love-ly, like-ly • exceptions: counterclock-wise, east-ward § nonstative adjectives: adjectives denoting temporary or changeable qualities (ex) mad, noisy, cute l l *Kathy is being very _____ Kathy is very _____ 10 § syntactic frames l _____ + ADJ / ADV / V l V + _____ • unusually quiet, very cynically, carefully observe Kathy is being very _____ Kathy is very _____ • devour hungrily, sit restlessly 11 12 2 Closed Class (I) § determiner: a, the, many, each, all, possessive (your, my, John’s) l syntactic frame: _____ + (ADJ) + N • the secret garden, my beloved son syntactic frames: • NP + _____ + VP: Rose should arrive at 8:30. • _____ + NP + VP: Would you leave? • _____ + not: I cannot go. l l syntactic frame: _____ + NP • in the room, on Friday § postposition: l syntactic frame: NP + _____ • [C] zhuozi shang ‘table on = on the table’ § conjunctions: used to combine words or phrases of the same categories, (ex) and, or, but § pronouns: used to replace nouns l § preposition: to, on, in, at, with l § auxiliary (= auxiliary verb): will, may, would, shall, can l Closed Class (II) subjects: I, he, she, we, they objects: me, him, her, us, them both subjects and objects: you, it l • coffee or tea; I eat cereal but he eats rice; ugly but cute; walk and talk 14 13 Caution! syntactic frames: N + _____ + N, S + _____ + S, ADJ + _____ + ADJ, V + _____ + V Constituents § a word will sometimes belong to more than one lexical categories l It’s cold. (ADJ) vs. I got a cold. (N) l a past week (ADJ) vs. in the past (N) l a promise (N) vs. I promise. (V) § a word will sometimes belong to more than one subcategories l I walked in the park. (V ) vs. I walked the dog in the park. (V ) i t l He sang beautifully. (V ) vs. He sang the song beautifully. (V ) i t § homonyms: two or more distinct words with the same pronunciation and spelling but different meaning l tree barks (N) vs. dog barks (V) §Definition: groupings of words that form a coherent syntactic or semantic unit l l l l l The President kissed the baby. ?? [The President [kissed the]] [baby] ?? [The [President kissed] the] baby] ?? [[The President kissed] [the baby]] ?? [The President] [kissed [the baby]] 15 16 Constituent Tests I Constituent Tests II § ability to stand alone (can be used to answer a whquestion) § substitution by a pro-form l [[The President] [kissed [the baby]]] l l • Who kissed the baby? The president. • Who did the president kiss? The baby. • What did the president do? Kissed the baby. l pronouns: I, you, we, us, me, it proverbs: do, be, have proadverbs: there, then • [[The President] [held a press conference] [last night]] l [[The President] [held a press conference] [last night]] l [[Smith] [dated [a woman from Boston]]] • [held a press conference last night] is not a constituent – The President held a press conference last night, and he regretted it. He shouldn’t have done it then. • [[Smith] [dated [a woman from Boston]]] – Smith dated a woman from Boston. He didn’t like her and he regretted it. • [dated a woman] not a constituent 17 18 3 Constituent Tests III Caution! §a group of words can be a constituent in one sentence but not in the other § movement: if some part of a sentence can be moved, it is a constituent [[The President] [held a press conference] [last night]] l l l • Last night, the President held a press conference §constituent structures are hierarchical [[Smith] [dated [a woman from Boston]]] l • It’s the woman from Boston that Smith dated l § Caution! This test does not always work! l l *Held a press conference the President last night l Brian kissed [Mary and Jason]? did too. Brian kissed [Mary and Jason] [[Brian] [kissed [Mary and Jason]]] [[Smith] [dated [a woman from Boston]]] [[The President] [kissed [the baby]]] 19 NPs: Noun Phrases Phrasal Categories §Definition: a syntactic category whose members are composed of one or more words that form a phrase; one type of phrase is usually interchangeable with another phrase of the same category NP (noun phrase), VP (verb phrase), PP (prepositional phrase), ADJP (adjective phrase), S (sentence) l 21 VPs: Verb Phrases John laughed. walked into the room. took a nap. gave a speech in the conference room. l l 22 § Definition: a constituent structure formed by a preposition and a noun phrase l into the room, on the table, on Friday § phrase structure rule for PP l § phrase structure rules for VP l § Definition: a construction with a noun as head § NP can function as subjects or objects l John laughed. The man The woman from Boston The little boy l I like John. the little boy. the man. The woman from Boston § phrase structure rules for NP l NP → DET ADJ N l NP → DET N l NP → N (proper name) l NP → NP PP PPs:Prepositional Phrases § Definition: a group of words with a verb as a head which together have the same syntactic function as a single verb l 20 PP → P NP § a PP can be a constituent of a wide range of phrases VP → Vi (ex) laugh VP → Vt NP (ex) take VP → VP PP l l l 23 walk towards the stadium (VP) my cousin in Florida (NP) crazy with ice cream (ADJP) 24 4 ADJPs:Adjectival Phrases Ss: Sentences § Definition: a construction with an adjective as head l The candidate is very old. extremely intelligent. certain to win the election § phrase structure rule for ADJP l ADJP → ADV ADJ § ADJPs are often used to modify nouns and often appear as elements of NPs l [a [very intelligent]ADJP man]NP, § Definition: the largest structural unit in terms of which the grammar of a language is organized l The dictionary is very old. l I am reading something on Atlantis. § phrase structure rule for S l S → NP VP § a sentence may also appear as an element of another expression l the fact that [the earth is round] (NP) l my assistant [who works part-time] (NP) l tell her [that I don’t feel like going] (VP) l excited [that you will be staying with us] (ADJP) 25 26 Tree Diagrams (I) Tree Diagrams (II) § A blind man robbed the bank. § Labeled tree diagram tells us l l l l a blind man (NP) robbed the bank (VP) the bank (NP) a blind man robbed the bank (S) l l S l l NP DET a ADJ blind linear word order categories of constituent of a sentence hierarchical structure of a sentence (constituent) (ex) The President kissed the baby. S VP N man robbed NP NP V DET DET N the bank VP N V NP DET N the baby the President kissed 27 Phrase Structure Rules (PS Rules) l l l A Toy Grammar § X, Y are phrasal categories, a, b, c, d are lexical categories § Definition: rules that show the possible (i.e. grammatical) relationships between phrasal categories and the words or phrasal categories that they dominate l 28 l generativity: property of human languages to use a finite set of rules and elements to produce an infinite set of grammatical sentences ambiguity: property of sentences of having two or more meanings hierarchical structure: term used to describe the dominance relationship among elements in a word, phrase, or sentence infinite recursion (productivity): property of languages allowing for the repeated application of a rule, yielding infinitely long sentences or an infinite number of sentences 29 l l l l l S→XY X → ab X→a Y → bcd Y → cd Y Y → cd S X a S ambiguity X Y b c Y a d b c d S X a Y b c recursiveness d Y c d Y c d Y 30 5 PS Rules for English (I) PS Rules for English (II) § S → NP VP (ex) [John] [sings]/[John] [ate an apple] § NP → DET ADJP* N (ex) [a] [very nice], [very honest] [person] § NP → PRO (ex) [He] [likes to eat pizza]. § NP → Npr (ex) [Joshua] [can dance tango well] § NP → (DET) ADJP* Npl (ex) ([many]) [pretty] [women] § NP → (DET) ADJP* Nm (ex) ([the]) [extremely white] [beach sand] § NP → NP PP (ex) [the man] [with glasses] § VP → Vi (ex) [He] [jogged] [in the park] § VP → Vt NP (ex) [The students] [ate their dinner] [at the commons] § VP → Vdt NP NP (ex) [I] [gave] [him] [my ID] § VP → VP PP (ex) [The roach] [scurried] [across the kitchen floor] § ADJP → ADV* ADJ (ex) [very] [very] [intelligent] § PP → P NP (ex) [into] [the woods] § NP → NP+ CONJ NP (ex) [Tom], [Henry], [and] [Harry] § VP → VP+ CONJ VP (ex) [We] [sang] [and] [danced] § S → S+ CONJ S (ex) [I went to bed early] [but] [he stayed up late] 31 32 Ambiguity Structural Ambiguity (I) § Definition: property of words or sentences of having two or more meanings § We need more intelligent leaders. l lexical ambiguity: a situation in which a lexical item has two or more meanings S • He found a bat (a flying animal vs. a baseball bat) l S NP structural ambiguity: a characteristic of phrases that have more than one possible constituent structure and therefore more than on semantic interpretation N VP NP V NP N ADJP • We need more intelligent leaders (a greater number of intelligent leaders vs. leaders that are more intelligent) • The mother of the boy and the girl left (1 vs. 2 people) • John killed the man in the park (the man in the park was killed vs. the man was killed in the park) ADV VP V NP N ADJP ADJ NP ADJ we need more intelligent leaders ADJ N we need more intelligent leaders 33 Structural Ambiguity (II) Structural Ambiguity (III) § The mother of the boy and the girl left. § John killed the man in the park S NP NP NP V NP NP P NP VP PP PP N S S VP CONJ NP DET 34 P DET N DET N the mother of the boy and the girl left V N NP DET N N VP S V NP NP NP CONJ DET NP NP DET N the mother of the boy and the girl left 35 DET N NP PP P NP DET N John killed the man in the park VP N VP V PP NP DET P N NP DET N John killed the man in the park 36 6 Syntactic Acquisition (I) Syntactic Acquisition (II) § Holophrasic stage (one-word stage): a phase in child language acquisition in which children are limited to one word at a time in their production § Telegraphic stage: a phase during child language acquisition in which children use utterances composed primarily of content words l no, gimme, mine, allgone, whasat l l l l l l l l Tense/Aspect: • Tommy kick kitty. → Chris eating apple. → Cindy goes to school • Marty saw the mice → I seed/sawed two mans. → Toby saw the geese. § Two-word stage: a phase in child language acquisition in which children start to put two words together agent + action (ex) dolly eat action + object (ex) hit kitty action + locative (ex) walk park entity + locative (ex) cookie floor possessor + possession (ex) Jimmy bear entity + attribute (ex) box big demonstrative + entity (ex) that milk l Negatives: l Interrogatives: • No I wear mittens → Timmy no cry. → I not eat cereal. • Teddy go? → Can Liz go? → Why Dad go? 37 38 Syntax Problem I Syntax Problem II §The clouds rolled across the sky. §The thieves opened the door with a credit card. 39 40 Syntax Problem III Syntax Problem IV §The walk through the park was very pleasant. §Tonika’s favorite show is about a rich family from California. 41 42 7 Syntax Problem V §The lifeguard found my cousin from Alabama’s ring in the pool. 43 8