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Deformation of the Crust 5.1 How the crust is deformed 5.2 The results of stress 5.3 Mountain formation Deformation • Many features of the earth result from deforming of the the crust – – – – Bending Folding Faulting Plate tectonics These rocks on the coast of New Zealand have been deformed by stress Isostasy • The balance of two forces acting on the Earth’s crust – The mass of the crust pushing done and the force of the mantle pushing up – Isostasy occurs when the two forces are balanced – This is when deformation occurs Isostasy is the vertical movement of the crust to to bouyancy in the mantle. Just like blocks of wood in water float higher the thicker they are, the crust rises and sinks because it is lighter than the underlying mantle. Variations in elevation are due both to thickness and density. The continents stand high because continental crust is thick and light. The ocean basins are low because oceanic crust is thin and dense. Isostasy • This type of deformation is common in areas where mountain or glaciers exist – For example the building up of the Himalayas pushes downwards on the crust – Erosion washing away the Appalachian Mountains changes their mass and as the result the area is rising – Hudson’s Bay continues to rebound since the mass of the last glacier (ice age) receded – Sediments washing down a river into the ocean add to its mass causing it to sink, allowing more deposits to settle etc. It's probably no accident that two of the largest epicontinental seas (seas extending deep into the continent) on Earth are Hudson Bay and the Baltic, both dead center in areas of active isostatic uplift. In all likelihood, the crust in these regions is still depressed and has not finished rising, and when uplift is complete both seas will mostly or entirely disappear. Gravity measurements suggest that the crust in the Hudson Bay region has another 100 meters still to rise. Isostasy • Up and down movements of the crust to reach a balance is called isostatic adjustment – This causes stress in the rocks of the crust and includes: compression, tension and shearing • All three forces contribute to mountain building – Different kinds of rock respond differently to various types of stress. Compression • When forces are pushing on either side of the rock • Squeezing makes layers thicker and shorter Tension • When forces pull rocks apart • Rock layers tend to become thinner and longer, layers may fracture Shearing • Forces push rocks in opposite horizontal directions • These rocks could bend, twist or break • Common in earthquakes Folding • This occurs when rock becomes permanently deformed but does not break – Layers may have cracks they they don’t break – Fold layers look wavelike and have various thicknesses – They can be small and localized or cover large areas • There are three types of folds: – Anticline, syncline and monocline Isoclinal folds Tight isoclinal folding, the upfold on the left is the anitcline and on the right is the syncline Recumbent folds Recumbent fold Black Hills, South Dakota Overturned fold At a small scale (outcrop-sized), contorted folds are found in metamorphic rocks such as gneisses. The rocks actually soften (see below) as they are heated during deep burial. This type of folding, called ptygmatic, is illustrated here. Open folding showing buckling and bending Anticline • Upwards fold where the lowest layer is in the centre • The sides of the fold are called limbs – The steepness of the limbs reflects the amount of force applied – Generally forms a ridge Anticline on a road cut near the Canadian Rockies Syncline • A downward fold where the youngest area is in the centre • Generally forms a valley Syncline on a road cut near the Canadian Rockies (same area as anticline shown earlier Lulworth Cove Dorset Synclines and anticlines commonly found next to each other (Canadian Rockies) A small anticline next to a syncline Folds can be extreme in their extent of crumpling. This is especially common in weak, thin-bedded shales, as shown here. Monocline • A fold where both limbs remain horizontal The House Rock Valley which runs between the reddish escarpment of the Vermilion Cliffs (right) and the green East Kaibab Monocline (left), is visible far to the north. (Grand Canyon) Monocline in the Waurn Ponds Limestone Member of the Jan Juc Formation (Oligocene to Miocene) at Waurn Ponds. Victoria State. Australia Island monocline, Colorado National Monument Another view of the same monocline Folding • The Appalachians are good examples of folded mountains with many anticlines and synclines • Folding stresses often begin deep in the Earth and the pressure increase heat making rocks more malleable