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Anatomy & Physiology I DR. J. SCOTT BROWN [email protected] [email protected] LAB EXERCISE 1 & 8 CHAPTER 1 THE HUMAN BODY MEMBRANES • Tips on How to Succeed in Your A&P Course • Attend all lectures, labs, and study sessions • Set up a study schedule • Devote a block of time each day • Practice memorization • Avoid shortcuts • Read your lecture and lab assignments before class • Set up study groups • Do not procrastinate Tips on How to Succeed in Your A&P Course Why do people procrastinate? *Got away with it in high school!! *Work better under pressure! *Got too far behind, why bother? *Some enjoy the rush of almost failing and trying to “pull it out at the end” *Others stay busy at studying, but never actually study --Closet example CHOOSE HIGH PRIORITIES OVER LOW PRIORITIES PROCRASTINATION RESULTS IN ANXIETY, GUILT AND WORRY After people truly work will they have positive emotions CONCLUSION: HARD WORK IS GOOD FOR ME!! HARD WORK IS GOOD FOR ME!! HARD WORK IS GOOD FOR ME!! Tips on How to Succeed in Your A&P Course Know your situation Don’t set yourself up for failure Set realistic goals Know your limitations Write down limitations and propose solutions SITUATION PROPOSED SOLUTION Work Set up exact study times Children Spouse, Parents, Daycare Demanding Other Sit down and talk A&P in Perspective • Learning Outcomes • Describe the universal characteristics of living things. • Define anatomy and physiology, and describe macroscopic and microscopic anatomy. • Explain the relationship between structure and function. Necessary Life Functions • Responsiveness & Adaptability • The ability to sense changes in the environment and respond to them • Growth • Reproduction • Increase in size and duplication. • Note: Sexual reproduction-Not necessary for INDIVIDUAL survival, but necessary for survival of the species Asexual reproduction (mitosis) is essential Necessary Life Functions • Movement • Locomotion, propulsion, peristalsis and contractility. • Metabolism • All the chemical reactions that occur in the body • Respiration – use oxygen to create ATP • Digestion – breakdown of ingested food substances • Excretion – removal of wastes from the body Survival Needs • Oxygen • Necessary for metabolic reactions • Water • Provides the necessary environment for chemical reactions • Normal body temperature • Necessary for chemical reactions to occur at life-sustaining rates • Atmospheric pressure • Required for proper breathing and gas exchange in the lungs Survival Needs • Nutrients • Needed for energy and cell building • Energy must be replaced when used • For animals −Absorption of oxygen from atmosphere through respiration −Absorption of various chemicals from environment The study of anatomy (form) and physiology (function) • Anatomy (“Cutting open”) • The study of the structure of body parts and their relationships to one another • Gross or macroscopic • Microscopic • Developmental • Physiology • The study of the function of the body’s structural machinery Gross Anatomy • Gross anatomy, or macroscopic anatomy, examines large, visible structures • Surface • Study of internal structures as they relate to the overlying skin (external features) • Regional • All structures in one part of the body (Heart is located in the thoracic cavity) • Systemic • Gross anatomy of the body studied by system (Circulatory vessels - heart or blood ) Microscopic Anatomy • Cytology • Study of the cell • Histology • Study of tissues Developmental Anatomy Traces structural changes throughout life Embryology Study of developmental changes of the body before birth Specialized Branches of Anatomy • Pathological anatomy • Study of structural changes caused by disease • Radiographic anatomy • Study of internal structures visualized by specialized scanning procedures such as X-ray, MRI, and CT scans • Molecular biology • Study of anatomical structures at a subcellular level Anatomy and Physiology • Physiology • Study of Function • Cell physiology • Processes within and between cells • Organ physiology • Functions of specific organs • Systemic physiology • Functions of an organ system • Pathological physiology • Effects of diseases Physiology • Understanding physiology also requires a knowledge of biology, chemistry and physics, which explains • Electrical currents • Blood pressure • The way muscle uses bone for movement • The heartbeat Physiology of the Heartbeat Form and function are interrelated • Physiology and anatomy are closely interrelated both theoretically and practically • Anatomical details significant because each has an effect on function • Physiological mechanisms understood through underlying structural relationships Principle of Complementarity • Function always reflects structure • What a structure can do depends on its specific form • Therefore, • Structure determines function Examples of Form & Function • Elbow joint (Macroscopic level) • Functions like a hinge − Movement is forward and away from your shoulder − Movement in one plane only. No twisting Examples of Form & Function • Chemical messengers and cellular receptors Hinge joint (microscopic level) • Cells communicate using specifically shaped molecules called chemical messengers • Receptors on target cells receive the message if the molecule fits the shape of receptor Each chemical compound has a specific size and three-dimensional shape. Chemical messengers come in a variety of sizes and shapes; in general, they are released by one cell to affect other cells. Chemical messengers are detected when they attach, or bind, to a receptor that has the proper shape. Binding creates a new structure— messenger and receptor—and the entire complex often changes shape as a result. This can change the function of the receptor. In this case, the binding of the messenger leads to the opening of a passageway through the plasma membrane. Levels of Organization • Learning Outcomes • Describe various types of cells in the human body and explain the basic principles of the cell theory. • Define histology and explain the interrelationships among the various types of tissues. • Identify the 11 organ systems of the human body, and describe the major functions of each. Levels of Structural Organization • Chemical • Atoms combined to form molecules • Cellular • Cells are made of molecules • Tissue • Consists of similar types of cells • Organ • Made up of different types of tissues • Organ system • Consists of different organs that work closely together • Organisms • Made up of the organ systems Levels of Structural Organization Heart Cellular Level Chemical and Molecular Levels Heart muscle cell Complex protein molecule Atoms in combination Protein filaments Levels of structural organization Tissue Level Cardiac muscle tissue Organ Level The heart The cardiovascular system Organ system level Organism level Cells • Free-living cells • Smallest independent organisms • Most plants and animals are multicellular • Human body • Trillions of cells • An estimated 200 different types – Average size --1/25,000 of an inch Cells • Human life depends on cells working together • Each cell responds to its local environment independently • Cells in different parts of the body are coordinated and controlled Figure 1.4 1 Tissues • • • Collections of cells and cell products performing specific functions are tissues Histology (histos, tissue) • Study of tissues Four primary tissue types 1. Epithelial 2. Connective 3. Muscle 4. Neural EXTRACELLULAR MATERIAL AND FLUIDS combine to form CELLS TISSUES EPITHELIAL TISSUE CONNECTIVE TISSUE combine to form MUSCLE TISSUE ORGANS NEURAL TISSUE interact in ORGAN SYSTEMS Epithelial Tissues • Forms a barrier with specific properties • Covers every exposed body surface • Lines digestive, respiratory, reproductive, and urinary tracts • Surrounds internal cavities • Lines inner surfaces of blood vessels and heart • Produces glandular secretions Connective Tissues • Diverse in appearance but all contain cells surrounded by extracellular matrix • Matrix comprised of: • Protein fibers • Ground substance (liquid) • Amount of matrix varies by the particular connective tissue type • Fills internal spaces • Provides structural support • Stores energy Muscle Tissues • Has the ability to contract forcefully • Major functions • Skeletal movement • Soft tissue support • Maintenance of blood flow • Movement of materials internally • Stabilization of body temperature Skeletal muscle tissue is usually attached to the skeleton, directly or indirectly, and its contractions move or stabilize the position of bones or internal organs. Cardiac muscle tissue is found only in the heart, where its coordinated contractions propel blood through the blood vessels. Smooth muscle tissue can be found in the walls of blood vessels, within glands, and along the respiratory , circulatory, digestive, and reproductive tracts. • Neural tissue • Specialized to carry information or instructions within the body • Two basic types of cells 1. Neurons (nerve cells) 2. Neuroglia (supporting cells) • Two locations within the body 1. Central nervous system (brain and spinal cord) 2. Peripheral nervous system (connecting CNS with other tissues and organs) Homeostasis • Learning Outcome • Explain the concept of homeostasis and discuss the roles of negative feedback and positive feedback in maintaining homeostasis. • Homeostasis • • Is a condition of equilibrium in the body’s internal environment produced by the interplay of all the body’s regulatory processes. Homeostatic regulation • Physiological adjustment to preserve homeostasis in variable environments • Homeostatic control is not precise • Maintains a normal range around the set point • SYSTEM & ENDOCRINE SYST NERVOUS SYSTEM & ENDOCRINE SYSTEM - Homeostasis • Mechanisms of Regulation • Autoregulation (intrinsic) • Automatic response in a cell, tissue, or organ to some environmental change • Extrinsic regulation • Responses controlled by nervous and endocrine systems Homeostatic Control Mechanisms • Variables produce a change in the body • The three interdependent components of control mechanisms: • Receptor • Monitors the environments and responds to changes (stimuli) • Control center • Determines the set point at which the variable is maintained − Set point (desired value) – in the control center • Effector • Provides the means to respond to stimuli Homeostatic Control Mechanisms Input: Information sent along afferent pathway to 3 Control center Receptor (sensor) 2 4 Output: Information sent along efferent pathway to Effector Change detected by receptor 5 Stimulus: Produces change in variable Variable (in homeostasis) Response of effector feeds back to influence magnitude of stimulus and returns variable to homeostasis Figure 1.4 Homeostasis The brain knows that there are a set point of operations within our body and it fluctuates around a particular value. • Maintained by negative feedback. • Primary mechanism of homeostatic regulation • Set point may vary with changing environments or activity levels − When a particular action changes the normal function and reverses the change that the action created. (i.e. it returns it to normal) *Blood pressure regulation *Sweating *It is similar to the functioning of a thermostat in a heating/cooling system Homeostatic Control of Body Temperature Homeostasis of Blood Pressure • Pressure receptors in walls of certain arteries detect an increase in BP • Blood Pressure = force of blood on walls of vessels • RECEPTOR • Baroreceptors send nerve impulses to the brain • CONTROL CENTER • Brain receives input and then signals heart and blood vessels (Control Center) • EFFECTOR • Heart • Heart rate slows and arterioles dilate • Decreasee in diameter • BP returns to normal Homeostasis • Positive feedback − When a particular action causes an increase in the normal functioning of the body. − It accelerates a process to completion enhancing the change from its’ original position. – Child Birth – Sexual stimulation – Blood Clotting Positive feedback mechanism can be harmful, as when a fever causes metabolic changes that push the fever still higher. Positive Feedback during Childbirth • RECEPTOR • Stretch receptors in walls of the uterus send signals to the brain • CONTROL CENTER (Brain) • Releases a hormone (oxytocin) into bloodstream • EFFECTOR • Uterine smooth muscle contracts more forcefully • More stretch more hormone more contraction etc. • The cycle ends with birth of the baby & decrease in stretch Positive feedback loops are typically found when a potentially dangerous or stressful process must be completed quickly before homeostasis can be restored. The immediate danger from a severe cut is loss of blood, which can lower blood pressure and reduce cardiac output. Anatomical Terms • Learning Outcomes • Use correct anatomical terms to describe superficial and regional anatomy. • Use correct directional terms and sectional planes to describe relative positions and relationships among body parts. • Identify the major body cavities and the subdivisions of each. Anatomical Terms • Landmarks around the body create a map for orientation • Based on Latin or Greek words used by ancient anatomists • Many terms also were initially named after the discoverer or the most famous victim (diseases) • Most eponyms have been replaced by more precise terms Figure 1 Section 4 Figure 1 Section 4 Figure 1 Section 4 Figure 1 Section 4 Figure 1 Section 4 Figure 1 Section 4 • • Superficial and Regional Anatomy Two major divisions of Surface Anatomy • Axial− Pertaining to the head, neck and trunk • Appendicular − Pertaining to the limbs Anatomical position • Standing up • Hands at the sides • Palms facing forward • Feet together • Laying down in anatomical position • Supine (face up) • Prone (face down) Venipuncture • Venipuncture is normally performed at anticubital fossa (anicubitis) • Median cubital vein Figure 1.8 1 Heel Calcaneus Directional and Sectional terms • Describe specific points of reference • Many different terms, often interchangeable • All directions utilize anatomical position as standard point of reference Major Directional Terms • Directional terms are used to precisely locate one part of the body relative to another and to reduce length of explanations. Superior or Inferior • Superior (Cephalad) • Towards the head • The eyes are superior to the mouth. • Inferior (Caudal) • Away from the head • The stomach is inferior to the heart. Dorsal or Ventral • Dorsal or Posterior • At the back of the body • The brain is posterior to the forehead. • Ventral or Anterior • At the front of the body • The sternum is anterior to the heart. Medial or Lateral Medial • Nearer to the midline of the body • The heart lies medial to the lungs. Lateral • Farther from the midline of the body • The thumb is on the lateral side of the hand. Proximal or Distal • Proximal • Nearer to the attachment of the limb to the trunk • The knee is proximal to the ankle. • Distal • Farther from the attachment of the limb to the trunk • The wrist is distal to the elbow. Superficial or Deep • Superficial • Close to the body surface • The Pleural cavity is superficial to the lungs • Deep • Farther away from the body surface • The heart is deep to the pericardium Planes and Sections • Planes are imaginary flat surfaces that are used to divide the body or organs into definite areas • Sections • Flat surfaces resulting from cuts through body structures, named according to the plane on which the cut is made (transverse, frontal, and midsagittal sections) • Principal planes include: • Sagittal (midsagittal and parasagittal) • Transverse (cross-sectional or horizontal) • Frontal –(Coronal) divides front and back • Oblique – combination of planes Sagittal Plane • Sagittal plane • Divides the body or an organ into left and right sides • Midsagittal plane • Produces equal halves • Parasagittal plane • Produces unequal halves Planes and Sections • Frontal or coronal plane • Divides the body or an organ into front (anterior) and back (posterior) portions • Transverse (cross-sectional) or horizontal plane • Divides the body or an organ into upper (superior) or lower (inferior) portions • Oblique plane • Some combination of 2 other planes Planes and Sections of the Brain • Horizontal Plane • Frontal Plane • Midsagittal Plane Body cavities • Two essential functions 1. Protect delicate organs from shocks and impacts 2. Permit significant changes in size and shape of internal organs • Interior of the body is subdivided into regions established by the body wall • Dorsal Body Cavity • Contains the CNS • Ventral body cavity or coelom • Largest body cavity containing organs of: • Respiratory system • Cardiovascular system • Digestive system • Urinary system • Reproductive system Dorsal Body Cavity • Near dorsal surface of body • 2 subdivisions • Cranial cavity • Holds the brain • Formed by skull • Vertebral cavity • Contains the spinal cord • Formed by vertebral column • Meninges • Line dorsal body cavity • Protect the brain and spinal cord Ventral Body Cavities • The Thoracic Cavity • The Pleural Cavities • Enclose the lungs. • The Pericardial Cavity • Encloses the heart • The Mediastium • Contains connective tissue and pericardial cavity containing the heart Ventral Body Cavities • The Abdominopelvic Cavity • Abdominal Cavity • Include the stomach, spleen, pancreas, liver, gallbladder, small intestine, and most of the large intestine • Pelvic Cavity • Include the urinary bladder, portions of the large intestine and internal female and male reproductive structures. Superficial and Regional Anatomy • Abdominopelvic quadrants • Imaginary perpendicular lines that intersect at navel • Used by clinicians to determine possible cause of patient pains, aches, or injuries • Abdominopelvic regions • Nine regions • Preferred by anatomists • Describe the precise location and orientation of internal organs Abdominopelvic Regions and Quadrants • Right & Left Hypochondriac Regions − Overlying the ribs : – Right ( Part of Liver) – Left (Part of Stomach & spleen) • Epigastric Region − Overlies the majority of the stomach and the liver • Right & Left Lumbar Regions − Between the ribs and the hips, large intestines • Umbilical − Small intestines − Transverse Colon • Right & Left Inguinal Regions (iliac) − Overlying the hips • Hypogastric (pubic) − Encompasses the pubic area − Appendix: Bladder : Genitals : Rectum