Download Introduction to Child Development

Introduction to Child
Development
• Human Development-the way people grow and
change across the lifespan (how person develops as
member of a culture)
• Culture- the total pattern of a group’s customs,
beliefs, art, and technology (group’s common way of
life passed on from one generation to the next)
• Globalization-connections between different parts of
the world in trade, travel, migration and
communication (have many contacts with people from
various cultures in the path of your personal and
professional life)
Human Development Today and Its Origins
Variations Across Countries
Demographic Profiles of Developed and Developing Countries
Developing
Countries O 1.1
• Developed Countries-most
wealthy
countries in the
world of Developed
Demographic
Profiles
▫ 17%
of total world
population (U.S.
and
Developing
Countries
Canada, Japan, South Korea, Australia, New
Zealand, Chile and most countries in
Europe.)
• Developing Countries-less wealth than
developed countries
▫ 82% of total world population
More Cultural Variation
• Developing counties (20% of children do not complete
primary school & only 50% are enrolled in secondary
school. College education is only for wealthy families)
• Developed countries (almost all children obtain
primary and secondary education, and about 50%
continuing higher education)
• Also variation:
▫ Income
▫ Education
▫ Cultural Beliefs
 Individualism (Western countries – belief in independence
and self-expression)
 Collectivism (developing countries – group harmony,
obedience)
Variations Within Each Country
Most counties have:
• Majority culture-Sets norms & standards,
holds most positions of power.
• SES (Socioeconomic Status)-social class
including educational level, income level and
occupational status
• Gender-is a key factor in development
throughout the life span (the expectations
cultures have for males and females)
• Ethnicity-Cultural origin, traditions, race,
religion and language
The Origins of
Human Diversity
Evolutionary Beginnings
Evolutionary theory proposed by Charles
Darwin
• Natural selection
▫ Young are born with variations of
characteristics
▫ Species change little by little each
generation
▫ The ones who will survive and reproduce
are the ones who can best adapt to their
environment (“Survival of Fetus).
• Humans’ evolutionary beginning shares
ancestry with chimpanzees and gorillas
• Human evolutionary line called hominid
line
• Homo species evolved into Homo sapiens
The Origins of Human Diversity
We share many characteristics with our
hominid relatives:
▫ Large brains relation to our body size
▫ Long period of dependence on adults
▫ Cooperative living in small groups
Human Evolution and Human
Development Today
Human development can be understood by
understanding human evolution
▫ Development is partly based on evolution
▫ Little biological change since Homo sapiens
▫ Development of larger brain contributes to
culture and environmental expansion
▫ http://media.pearsoncmg.com/ph/hss/hss_
arnett_humandevelopment_1/QRvideo/mec
hanismsofevolution.mp4
Theories of Human
Development
Classic Theories
• Scientific theories have been around for a short
time (only about 120 years)
• The major theories of conceptualizing
development are:
▫ Psychoanalytic approach
 Psychosexual-Sigmund Freud (1856-1939)
 Psychosocial-Erik Erikson (1902-1994)
▫ Behaviorist approach: John Watson, Ivan Pavlov
and Skinner
▫ Social Learning Theory: Albert Bandura
▫ Constructivist approach: Jean Piaget & Lev
Vygotsky
Freud's Psychosexual Theory
1865-1939
• Earliest scientific theory of human development
• Worked w/people who suffered from different mental
health problems
• Learned that his patients has experienced some kind of
traumatic event in childhood
• Trauma was buried in the unconscious mind/repressed
• Repressed experiences shaped people's personality &
mental functioning.
• Developed psychoanalysis to bring out those repressed
memories and work through them
Freud’s Psychosexual Theory
• Based on Freud’s belief, the mind consist of 3
basic parts:
• Id (infancy)– basis of pleasure principals; the
basic biological needs and desires (needs have to be
met immediately)
• Ego (1yr)-Basis of reality; rational part of
personality, emerges in early infancy to redirect
the id’s impulses so that they are discharged in
acceptable ways
• Superego-Basis of conscience (develop
conscience, morality)
Example
When arguing with someone
• Id= hitting or pushing that person
• Ego= angry words and walk away
• Superego= not polite to hit someone
• Freud Developed psychosexual theory based
on his work w/patients.
• Freud strongly believed that sexual desire is the
driving force behind human development.
TableInfancy
1.1 - Freud’s Oral
Psychosexual
Sexual sensations centered
on mouth; pleasure derived
Stages
from sucking, chewing,
Age Period
Psychosexual Stage
Main Features
biting.
Toddlerhood
Anal
Sexual sensations centered
on the anus; pleasure
derived from elimination
(this is the time that toilet
training usually takes place).
Early Childhood
Phallic
Sexual sensations move to
genitals; sexual desire for
other-sex parent and fear of
same-sex parent (sexual
energy is focused in their and
other’s genitals).
Middle Childhood
Latency
Sexual desires repressed;
focus on developing social
and cognitive skills.
Adolescence
Genital
Reemergence of sexual
desire, now directed outside
Erikson’s Psychosocial Theory
(1902-1994)
• He was trained as a psychoanalyst in
Freud’s circle. He questioned the
rationality of Freud’s psychosexual theory
• Focuses on social and cultural
environment and not sexuality
• Continued throughout lifespan and not
limited to first six years as Freud
• Eight stages of development characterized
by crisis and resolution
Trust vs. Mistrust (infancy)
• In this stage, the babies learn (or fail to learn)
that the world around them is a safe and reliable
place and that other people respond to their
needs. For example, infants who cry and get
response, who are fed when they are hungry or
comforted when they are hurt, develop trust.
• Infants who don’t get respond to their needs,
they develop mistrust. Therefore, teachers
should establish a reliable and safe atmosphere
that reinforces the trust.
What to Do
• Develop a positive relationship with each child
• Follow a consistent schedule
• Carry through on announced plans and promises
Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt
(ages 1-3)
• During this stage, children learn the skills of holding
on and letting go, which associated with the drive to
become independent and to express this
independence by making choices and decisions.
• Children develop autonomy or independence when
adults give them a chance to do things on their own.
• When adults make excessive demands or being
judgmental that devalues children’s efforts, they
develop shame and doubt.
What to Do
• Set up an environment where children can find
and return materials on their own
• Provide appropriate play materials that support
and challenge children’s abilities
• Help children express their feelings in
constructive ways
• Provide appropriate real-world responsibilities
and jobs
• Encourage children to see tasks through to
completion
Initiative vs. Guilt (ages 3-5).
Initiative is an interest in making things.
• During this stage, children become more
interested in doing things, and in being part of
the group.
• When adults underestimate children’s work,
guilt sets in.
• Teachers should create an environment in the
classroom that encourages children to
experiment, explore, and pursue their own
interests.
What to Do
• Offer children opportunities to make choices
• Provide children with ample opportunities for
creative expression
• Allow children freedom to explore the
environment
• Permit children to get messy during play
Industry vs Inferiority
(ages 6-12)
• Children learn the knowledge and skills required
by their culture
• If child is taught well and encouraged, he/she
build enthusiasm for learning and builds
confidence
• If child who is unsuccessful at learning is likely
to experience dependency
Identity Vs. Role Confusion
(ages 13-21 years)
•
•
•
•
Struggle for identity (who am I?)
Changing self-image
Breaking away from parents
Very active socially
What to Do
• Provide clear expectations
• Provide opportunities for independence,
but recognize the need for dependence
• Be sensitive to the ups and downs of
intimate relationships
Intimacy Vs. Isolation
(21-39 years)
20s:
• Searching for a partner
• Parenting may begin for some
• Focus on education and careers
• Wanting to demonstrate competence on
the job
30s:
• Social life revolves around partnerships
and family or around close friends
• More men and women choosing to
postpone marriage
• Both men and women concerned about
balancing work and family
responsibilities
• Job advancement may be a goal for some
Generativity Vs. Stagnation
(40-65 years)
• Marriage – each partner respects
autonomy of the other
• Continues to try to balance work and
family responsibilities
• Mental activities still in place
• Becoming a model in the next
generation‘s eyes
• Friends are important
• Signs of aging
• Feeling creative, productive, and selfsatisfied
• Begins to think about retirement
Integrity Vs. Despair
(65 and older)
• Beginning to accept self as part of elder
generation
• Sharing wisdom
• Mental ability may diminish, but still
effective
• Health and aging issues
• Enjoys old friends, family, grandchildren
• Still seeks work creative, or learning
opportunities
Behaviorism and Learning Theories
• Behaviorism-theory that all thought & behavior
can be explained in terms of learning
mechanisms
• Anything can be learned
• Behavior can be shaped by the response of
others
Ivan Pavlov and Skinner
Pavlov - Classical conditioning studies with dogs.
• Dogs salivate (unconditioned response) to
smell of food (unconditioned stimulus)
bell (neutral stimulus) caused salivation
(conditioned response)
• Skinner- operant conditioning experiments
showed how reinforcers can shape behavior.
For example, if you give a child a desirable reward,
such as praise, it makes the child most likely to
repeat the praised behavior
Albert Bandura
Social learning theory- learning can also occur via
observation, without directly experiencing
reinforcement or conditioning.
• Bandura- Bobo doll experiments
Bandura- Bobo doll experiments
Constructivist Theories
Knowledge is not a copy of reality
• People actively construct reality in the
mind as they interact with objects & people in the
world
1. Jean Piaget
2. Lev Vygotsky
Constructive Theories
• Piaget’s Stage Theory- focused on how
cognition changes as the child interacts
with the environment. Child’s learning
takes place through the use of schemes:
Which are cognitive structures for processing,
organizing, and interpreting information.
Assimilation: process of bringing new objects or
information into a scheme that already exists in the
mind. For example, if an infant has a scheme for
“doggie,” any other animals with the same features will
be called “doggie”
Constructive Theory
Accommodation: process of adjusting a scheme so
it better fits the new experience. For example, if a
child sees a horse and calls it “doggie,” the parents
may correct, saying “that’s a horse,” and the infants
learns a new scheme.
• Two processes involved in the
use of schemes:
Constructivist Theories
Vygotsky’s Social Constructivist Theory- views
cognitive development as a social and cultural process.
• Social - children learn through interactions with their
peers and adults
• Cultural - what we need to know is determined
by the culture they live in.
Two Vygotsky’s ideas:
• Zone of proximal development (ZPD) – skills children
can accomplish on their own
• Scaffolding – skills advances as assistance provided by
adults or more knowledgeable peer
• zone of proximal development
Recent Theories:
Bronfenbrenner’s Ecological Theory
Focuses on multiple influences that shape behavior.
Five levels that play a part in human development:
• Microsystem-Immediate environment (family,
friends, teachers)
• Mesosystem-Interconnections between
microsystems (if parents work hours are long, that
effects their relationships with their children)
• Exosystem-institutions that have indirect effects on
development (extended family members and
friends, who provide advise, schools, media)
• Macrosystem-Cultural beliefs and values, laws
Scientific Study of Human
Development
The scientific method Composed of 5 steps:
1. Identifying a question – “what causes
aggression in children?”
2. Forming a hypothesis – “watching violent
movies will lead to aggression.”
3. Choosing a research method or design –
observation, interview, questionnaires, etc.
4. Collecting data - collecting a sample that
represents the population
5. Drawing conclusions - data is concluded and
peer reviewed Data is inferred and peer
reviewed. Can lead to theory modification or
changes