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STAGE THEORY
Describes any theory of development.
A stage is an identifiable period in an extended on-going process.
SOME STAGE THEORIES
Gessel
- Sensory-motor development
Kohlberg - Moral development
Piaget
- Cognitive development
Freud
- Psychosexual development
Erikson
- Psychosocial development
FREUD - Psychosexual development
THE MIND;
ID - The pleasure principle of immediate
gratification
EGO - The reality principle, the controlling
gratification.
area, finds realistic means of
SUPER - EGO Moral arbitrator, prevents
threats to social order.
PSYCHOSEXUAL - Describes any sensual pleasure
Freud viewed any "simple pleasure" as "erotic"
PSYCHOSEXUAL STAGES
ORAL, (birth - 1 year)
Most pleasure is via the mouth, sucking, chewing and vocalizing.
ANAL, (1 -3 years)
Interest during this time focuses on the anal region.
The child learns to expel or retain faecal material at will.
PHALLIC, (3 - 6 years)
The genitals become an interesting and sensitive area of the body.
Time of Oedipus complex.
LATENCY, (6 - 12 years)
Physical and psychic energy are focused on acquisition of knowledge and play
GENITAL, (12 and over)
Starts with puberty.
The genital organs become the major site of sexual tensions and pleasure.
Energy also focused on forming friendships and preparation for marriage.
Personality features associated with the stages.
PERSONALITY FEATURES ASSOCIATED WITH THE STAGES.
ORAL
pessimism or optimism
determination or submission
admiration or envy
(Di Caprio, 1983)
ANAL
stinginess or over generosity
punctuality or tardiness
orderliness or messiness
PHALLIC
brashness or bashfulness
gaiety or sadness
blind courage or timidity
gregariousness or isolationism
PIAGET
-
Cognitive development, (1969).
How children acquire the ability to reason abstractly and think in a logical manner.
Learning is by interaction with the environment.
SCHEMA are formed by children to order knowledge.
TWO PROCESSES ARE USED;
Assimilation and accommodation
Assimilation - new material is incorporated into cognitive systems already known to
them.
Accommodation - existing schema are changed to be consistent with new material.
Development of logical thinking
SENSORIMOTOR, (birth to 2 years)
Simple learning takes place from sensations.
Development of a theory of cause and effect.
Trial and error learning.
Use of experimentation, curiosity, and enjoyment of novelty.
Learn to differentiate between self and environment.
Learn object permanence.
Imitation of the behaviour of others.
Begin to use language.
Relationships with objects are important because all concepts involve objects in one
way or another, (Elkind, 1979)
PREOPERATIONAL, (2 -7 years).
Prime feature of this stage is egocentricity.
This means the inability to put oneself in the place of another.
Children can only see things from their own point of view.
Objects and events can not be interpreted in terms of general properties.
Thinking is concrete and tangible.
No ability to make deductions or generalizations.
Thought is dominated by experiences.
Increasing ability to use language and symbolism to represent reality.
They lack a concept of reversibility, that one action may cancel another.
In the later part of the phase reasoning becomes intuitive, eg. stars have to go to
bed too.
CONCRETE OPERATIONAL, (7 -11 years)
Increase in the logic and coherence of thought.
Able to classify, sort, order and otherwise use facts to problem solve.
Realisation that volume, weight and numbers remain the same regardless of outward
appearance.
Lack capacity to solve problems using abstraction.
Use concrete methods, based on what they can see.
Thinking becomes decentred, gain ability to see from other perspectives than their
own.
Thinking has become socialized.
FORMAL OPERATIONAL, (12 -15 years)
Characterized by adaptability and flexibility.
Can think in abstract terms.
Use abstract symbols.
Draw logical conclusions from a set of observations.
Make hypotheses and test them.
Consider the abstract, theoretical and philosophical.
May confuse the ideal with the practical.
Can deal with and resolve the contradictions in the world.
STAGES IN MORAL DEVELOPMENT, (KOHLBERG, 1975)
This is based on cognitive development theory.
LEVEL I
Stage 1
Punishment orientation
Stage 2
Reward orientation
LEVEL II
Stage 3
Good boy/girl orientation
Stage 4
Authority orientation
LEVEL III
Stage 5
Social-contract orientation
Stage 6
Ethical principle orientation